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TRANSACTIONS

OF

THE ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

VICTORIA,

FROM JANUARY TO DECEMBER, 1860, INCLUSIVE.

VOL V.

Edited for the Council of the Society by
JOHN MACGADAM, M.D., Hon. Sec.
Zest ig. Midi lay
/ (s0eo8t.

(te NOV1I3 936 a)

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\ tne NAL mysewZ
Melbourne:

MASON AND FIRTH, PRINTERS, FLINDERS LANE WEST,

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Roval Society of Victoria.

PRESIDENT :

HIS EXCELLENCY SIR HENRY BARKLY, K.C.B,

VICE-PRESIDENTS:

RICHARD EADES, Esq., M.B. | PROFESSOR NEUMAYER.

HONORARY TREASURER :

REV. JOHN I. BLEASDALE.

HONORARY SECRETARY :

JOHN MACADAM, Esqa., M.D., M.L.A.

COUNCIL:
Cc. W. LIGAR, Esa. THE HON. DAVID WILKIE, M.D.,
JOUN MILLAR, Esq., C.K, : M.L.C. h ’
C. HODGKINSON, Esq., C.K. SOLOMON IFFLA, Hsa., M.R.C.S.

3 PROFESSOR IRVING.
T. E. RAWLINSON, Esq., C.E. PROFESSOR M‘COY,

WILLIAM GILLBEE, Esq., M.R.C.S.E. J. W. OSBORNE, Eso.
FERDINAND MUELLER, Esq., M.D. H, F. EATON, Esa,

CONTENTS.

Inaugural Address of the President, His Excellency Sir Henry

Arr. I.

Il,

Til.

uA

Ve

VI.

VII.

Bark iy, K.C.B., &c., &e.

The ‘*Three Sections,” the ‘‘ Tangencies,” tld aac ies
Problem” of Apollonius, and Porismatic Developments,
by Marrin GARDINER, C.E. Connery. Science peels
Queen’s College, Galway) .. a

A Communication from fie. Rey. W. B. Cr. LARKE, of
Sydney, to His Excellency Sir Henry Barkty, K. C. B.,
&e., &c., President of the Royal Society of Victoria, on
Professor M‘Coy’s “‘ New Teeniopteris ” from the Coal-
bearing Rocks of the Cape Patterson District in par-
ticular, , and on the Evidence bearing on the Question of
the Age of Australian Coal Beds in general.—Commu-
nicated to the Society by His Excellency THE PRESIDENT

A Commentary on ‘‘A Communication made by the Rey.

W. B. CrargkE to His Excellency Sir Henry Barxty,
K.C.B., &e., &c.,-President of the Royal Society of
Victoria, on Professor M‘Coy’s ‘ New Teeniopteris,’
&e., &e.,” by FrepErIcK M‘Coy, Esq., F.G.S., Hono-
rary Fellow of the Cambridge Philosophical Society,
Professor of the Natural Sciences in the University of
Melbourne, Government Eolponteleeicis and Director
of the National Museum +.

The Conjugal Condition of the Pane of Victoria, con-
sidered in relation to Laws of Divorce, by Francis A.
Corser, Esq. :

Remarks on the Physicai Guten A iy Climate, as of the
Regions lying between the Rivers Lachlan and Darling,
by W. Locknarr Morton, Esq. ... ee

On the Nest and Eges of the Coach-whip Bird ( see
Crepitans, Gould), : and of the White-fronted Epthianura
(Epthianura Albifrons, Gould), with some general
remarks on the Nidification of Australian Bir ds, by A.
Dosrer, Esa. t

=, the Application of G pe anic Electricity ¥o, Peete
Astronomy, by R. J. L. Etiery, Esg., Government
Astronomer a a

PAGES

1—18

19—89

$9—95

96—107

. 108—127

128—140

141—144

. 145—152

vill Contents.

PAGES
Arr, VIII. Suggestions for the Introduction of Animals and Agri-
cultural Seeds into Victoria, by W. LockHArt

Morron, Esq. . = 5S . 153—157
LX. On a Deposit of Diatomaces at South es by

Joun Coates, Esq., M.R.C.S.L., South Yarra... 158—164
X. Manners and Customs of the Agate Natives, in
particular of the Port Lincoln District, by CHARLES

Witueimy, Esq. “ac . 164—203
XI. Description of a New Species of Plumatella, ie 1B H.
MacGinuivray, Esq., A.M., M.R.C.S. ... . 203—204

XII. Indigenous Fibrous Plants, i F. A. CorBert, mage 205—208
XIII. Remarks on Professor M‘Coy’s Commentary, by Rev.

W. B. Cuarxke, M.A., F.G.S., &c. ae . 209—214
XIV. Note on Rev. Mr. Clarke’s in &e. ey Bee
fessor M‘Coy ... . 215—217

XV. On the Multisection she an Fone by means of the
Cycloid, by the Hon. D. E. WILKIE, MEADE, Mol
witha plate ... ... 217—220

PROCEEDINGS.

Minutes of the Meetings of the Society Sug we wee 1, —XXV.
Annual Report for 1860 oe 306 de ve XXVil. —XXX.
Balance Sheet for 1860 we nc as S53 XXX1,—XXxil,
Reports of Committees e so: ae 0c XXXili.—xliy.
List of Institutions, Learned Societies, &c., receiving copies of the
Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria for 1860 xly.—xlvii.
List of Members ... are aie aa ae .. li, —bs.

APPENDICES, containing—
1. Instructions to Members of Exploring Eepeition List of

Stores, &c. Ixy. —lxxxiv.

2, Reprints of the Contents of former Volumes of the
‘* Transactions,” &e. pe we Sass Ixxxvil.—e.
Minutes, &c., of Committee on Prize Essays ... oe end of volume

Laws of the Institute oe wes wee tee ditto

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Roval Society of Victoria.

Inaugural Address of the President, His Excellency Sir
Henry Banrxty, K.C.B., &c., &c.

[Delivered to the Members of the Royal Society, at the Anniversary
Meeting held on the 10th April, 1860.]

GENTLEMEN or THE Roya Society or Vicroria,

I am conscious that my unanimous election to the office on
which I to-night enter, was in nowise owing to the scientific
qualifications you supposed me to possess, but to your desire,
as Members of the late Philosophical Institute, to evince a
grateful sense of Her Majesty’s recent condescension, by thus
making Her Representative your first President under the
new style you have been permitted to assume.

In this view I felt I had no right to decline the proffered

compliment, nor to shrmk from the duties its acceptance
B

2 Anniversary Address.

imposed, however unequal I knew myself to be to their
efficient discharge.

** Parcus scientiarum cultor et infrequens,”

if I may be allowed so to paraphrase the confession of Horace,
it is indeed with the greatest diffidence that I rise to deliver
the Inaugural Address expected from me on this occasion,
and to treat of scientific questions in the presence of many so
much more conversant with their details than I can pretend
to be.

Most especially am I sensible of my unfitness to succeed
one who has achieved so high a reputation in the scientific world
as my predecessor in the Presidential Chair—Ferdinand
Mueller—a man whose enthusiasm as a botanist is only sur-
passed by his industry as a writer, evidenced, despite the
official demands on his time, by the publication, during his
presidency, of several most useful works, of which I need
only instance his “ Monographs of the Tropical Eucalypti, of
the Australian Acacias, and of the Genus Hremophila ;”” his
«Enumeration of the Plants collected on the explormg expe-
ditions of Gregory and of Babbage ;” his mvaluable “ Frag-
menta Phytographie Australie,’ contaming already the
diagnoses of no less than 600 new or undescribed Australian
plants; and above all his first sheets of the “ Flora of Victoria,”
a work which, when completed, will redound equally to the
credit of the author, and of the Colony at whose expense it
has been given to the world.

As through his zeal and perseverance, moreover, the
Philosophical Institute has, during the past year, obtained a
“Jocal habitation,” as well as a change of name, and may
now, therefore, be considered an established institution of
the land, the present seems a fitting opportunity for me,
when thus addressing you, to examine how far it has hitherto
accomplished the objects for which it was founded, and to

Anniversary Address. 3

consider by the hght of past experience how its operations
may in future be most beneficially conducted.

These objects were declared in 1855 (when two infant pro-
jects of a similar nature were amalgamated into the present
Society), “‘to embrace the whole field of science, with special
reference to the development of the natural resources of the
country,” the mode of effecting them having at the same
time been defined to be ‘by original rescarches conducted
by members, and original papers read and discussed at
meetings.”

I find that in accordance with the latter intention, not far
short of one hundred Papers on points connected with Zoology,
Botany, Geology, Astronomy, Meteorology, Enginecring,
and other branches of science both exact and inexact, have
been, during the five years of its existence, read and dis-
cussed; and when I mention, not invidiously but for the
sake of illustration, the names of Professors Wilson, McCoy,
Hearn, and Neumayer; of Doctors Mueller and Becker ; of
Messrs. Selwyn and Brough Smyth, as among the contribu-
tors, I need hardly add that much has been thereby done for
the advancement of scientific truth.

I would not ignore the fact that the Society has been
occasionally criticised by the lecal press for the trivial nature
of some of the topics brought forward, no less than for the
asperity which has at times characterised its discussions.
Such criticism need occasion little concern. If well founded,
it can scarcely fail to lead to improvement. If unfair, it will
in the long run fall harmless.

I am old enough to remember the attacks of the Times on
the early proceedings of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science; but witty and vivacious as were its
sallies, they aided probably rather than retarded the subse-
quent triumphs of that noble scientific Congress.

zy Anniversary Address.

We are in fact all of us too prone to despise such pursuits
as lead to no visible or immediate good to society; but, as
has been well remarked, ‘‘no serious study is without serious
value to the human race,” and a very little reflection will
serve to show that the observation of facts cannot possibly
be too minute or too accurate when we are engaged in inves-
tigating the mysterious and all but inscrutable laws of
Nature.

Whilst I feel justified, however, in asserting that fair
progress has been made towards realising one of the chief
objects for which the Society has been instituted—namely,
to elicit original communications on scientific subjects—
I am, at the same time, free to confess that, looking to
the many eminent names enrolled among its members, more,
far more, of interest and importance might have been ex-
pected to be contained in the three volumes of its Transac-
tions which have as yet seen the light.

My idea is, that the Society’s Transactions ought to
present a faithful and enduring record of the position and
progress of scientific research in this country, and should set
forth the most advanced views that its savans entertain on
the great scientific questions of the day, more especially
those affecting the development of our material resources.
From some of these gentlemen, however, mere passing
and fugitive contributions have been obtained ; from others
none at all; and so far from the Transactions reflecting
the actual state of science in Victoria—of which there is,
in my opinion, every reason to be proud—a stranger desirous
of judging for himself on this point, would be obliged to
gather scattered intimations of the labors of our scientific
men from the reports of scientific bodies in Europe,
from returns laid before the Legislature, or from even less
accessible sources of information. i

Anniversary Address. 5

To devise a remedy for this inadaquate representation of
the state of science in our pages, may not be easy, but it
will at any rate prove salutary to trace its causes.

There is in Victoria, I need hardly remind you, no class
of noblemen and gentlemen, as at home, devoting ample
fortunes to the cultivation of such scientific pursuits as please
them, and possessing abundant leisure to communicate their
discoveries to one another. 4.

It is a melancholy fact, though one almost incidental to
the paucity of our population and the newness of our
society, that neither literary nor scientific teaching will,
except in connection with posts of public emolument, enable
even the most talented to earn a livelihood in this country.
I need not cite instances ; the experience of everybody will
supply notafew. Hence it so happens that our leading scien-
tific men have nearly all of them professional duties of more
or less urgency to perform, and but little time at their dis-
posal for the composition of papers not absolutely required by
the State at their hands.

So far from blaming them for this, we are bound to feel
the deepest obligation to them for transferring their labors
to our shores. There is scarcely one of them who would not
have obtained higher honors if not larger emoluments in the
Old World, and who does not therefore remain to explore the
wide field opened at the Antipodes from pure love of science.

It is natural that under such circumstances gentlemen
should, when devoting their spare hours to describe the result
of their observations, seek to influence as large a body of
scientific readers as possible, and that they should, therefore,
seldom address themselves to this Society, where the number
of members who have turned their attention to any particular
branch of knowledge is necessarily extremely limited. Hitherto,
in fact, this paucity of members has constituted the great

6 Anniversary Address.

obstacle to the introduction of a proper system of sectional
division into our rules, and I fear no arrangement of the
sort can work well until the number of cultivators of science
is greatly augmented among us.

At the last meeting of the British Association, at Aber-
deen, upwards of two thousand members were present, fur-
nishing material for full attendance, and an intelligent audi-
tory im every section.

Is it too much to anticipate that those throughout the
Australian Colonies who take an interest in the advance-
ment of science will, ere long, congregate in like manner in
one or other of their Capital Cities every year ?

We have intercolonial cricket matches for the development
of the physical strength of our youth; champion races to
test the fleetness of our horses. Why should we not have
annual gatherings for the interchange of intellectual ideas ?
Into such an arena it would be worth the while of our scientific
men to descend. The Geologists might there satisfactorily
discuss the theory of the distribution of gold in its matrix ;
the Paleontologists determine whether our coal fields were
really of the Paleeozoic or Mesczocic era, or whether secondary
formations have any place on the Australian Continent or not.
But until we can hold out an inducement in this way, we can
hardly hope for such disquisitions on the different species of
Ammonites and Belemnites as we had the pleasure of listening
to from Professor McCoy on the occasion of Dr. Hochstetier’s
recent lecture; nor be surprised that Mr. Selwyn should
prefer to make known his theories through the journals of
the Geological Society of Great Britain.

There is indeed another way in which this Society, whilst
more directly than heretofore fulfilling its avowed object of
developing the natural resources of the country, might entitle
itself to the gratitude, and perhaps enlist the services of the

Anniversary Address. e

heads of our scientific departments, and that is, by enforcing
from time to time their applications for pecuniary aid upon
the Government and the Parliament.

I might, from the peculiarity of my public position, hesitate
to refer more specifically to such a matter, had I not the
high example of Prince Albert, who pointed this out to the
British Association at Aberdeen, as one of the functions it
was eminently fitted to discharge.

T entirely concur with His Royal Highness in thinking
that it is well for every country to possess a body capable of
justly appreciating the wants of science, and of speaking with
authority whenever the national interests demand the expen-
diture of public money for scientific purposes.

I am aware that this Society has, on some particular
occasions, done so, but I think it might safely carry the
principle further; and when it is clear, for example, that the
printing of the maps of the Geological Survey is delayed for
want of funds: that the collection of minerals and fossils
made to illustrate it le useless, because neither space nor
money is provided for their proper classification: that two or
three hundred pounds would suffice for the publication of
Meteorological and Astronomical Observations of the highest
value made at the Flagstaff-hill Observatory: I hold it to be
the duty of this Society to call public attention to the fact,
and not to leave the officers concerned to supplicate for the
requisite funds as if they had some private or personal in-
terest to serve in obtaining them.

I am confident that if such desiderata were fairly made
known on competent authority, there would be no disinclina-—
tion on the part of the Ministry to propose the vote necessary
for their immediate attainment; and no one looking at the
annual Estimates, and seeing the scale on which many of our
scientific establishments are provided for, can accuse the
Legislature of a niggardly disposition in such matters. Were

8 Anniversary Address.

it otherwise, with the political constitution under which we
live, it is not on either that the blame would fall. Lord
Bacon, indeed, lays down the doctrine, that whatever the
form of Government may be, “the state of knowledge is ever
a democracy, and that prevaileth which is most agreeable to
the senses and conceits of the people.”

If there be then no just appreciation of the labors of
scientific men; if there exist unreasonable impatience that
the practical results of their investigations are not more
rapidly realised: the fault is chargeable on the entire com-
munity.

I would not willingly imply that this is the case among us
here. Every credit is due, I must repeat, to the Legislature
for the liberality it has in times past displayed in scientific
matters. It has cause, I have already recorded my belief,
to be proud of the results achieved. For my own part, when
I peruse the encomiums passed in presence of learned socie-
ties at home, by so illustrious an authority as Sir Roderick
Murchison, upon the labors of our Government Geologist
and Palontologist ; or when I find so celebrated an astrono-
mer as Mr. Hinds congratulating the scientific world,
through the columns of the Times, “That the essential m-
struments exist at Melbourne, in the hands of experienced
Astronomers, for observing the transit of the newly discoy-
ered intra-mercurial planet over the sun’s disc;” I feel, I
confess, prouder of being the Governor of a colony which has
attained this advanced stage of civilisation, than if I had a
stately palace to dwell in, or barbaric hordes to bend the knee
"ad Gy, GAL oe")

If I am anxious, as I have hinted, to see still further
moderate expenditure for scientific purposes; if I long to
know that the Southern Heavens are nightly swept with an
eighteen-inch lens, instead of by our present comparatively
powerless telescopes ; it is because I am convinced that such

Anniversary Address. 9

expenditure would in many respects be the truest economy,
and that in others the fame which would accrue to the colony
would far more than compensate for the immediate outlay.

Our present position in regard to scientific researches
strikes me as not very dissimilar to that of some quartz-
crushing Company on our gold fields, possessing stacks of
auriferous stone ready to yield untold treasure, together with
a first-rate battery of stampers, but begrudging the fuel re-
quisite for working the steam-engine by which that battery
is to be driven.

This Colony has gone to great expense in engaging the
services of men of first-rate ability: it has provided each
with certain apparatus suited to his vocation, or given him
the aid of a costly staff. Having done this, will it be con-
tent to rest in ignorance of what is beg accomplished, or
delay, for the sake of a few extra thousands, the successful
completion of their allotted tasks ?

I have enlarged, gentlemen, at the risk of wearying you,
upon this portion of my subject, because I am convinced that
the Royal Society may do much to remedy such a state of
things. It must, however, first of all, begin at the begin-
ning, and acquire more of the confidence of the people than
it at present commands. It must make science popular.
Not in the false sense of that word. Not by patronising
the exhibition of pretty tricks and ingenious experiments
(though let me, in passing, observe I should be glad to hear
lectures on scientific subjects, delivered by qualified lecturers,
in our new Hall). Not by promoting the publication of cheap
manuals and trashy guide books to science, in which facts are
generalised until their individual significance is lost, and the
student is persuaded that he can run before he really knows
how to walk alone. Not by such means would I have you
popularise the objects we have in view, but by teaching your

fellow-colonists to believe in the earnestness of your purpose
c

10 Anniversary Address.

and the sincerity of your endeavours to promote their wel-
fare ;. by inducing implicit reliance in the accuracy of your
assertions, and inculcating the real value and utility of
scientific truth.

I know that difficulties await any society of this kind in
such a course. Even among the educated classes there are
many who deride the notion of a Philosophical Institute, and
though not ignorant of the derivative sense of the words, nor
unwilling to boast themselves “ friends of reason,” or posses-
sors of “‘ knowledge,”’ would only apply the name of “ philo-
sophers,” or ‘men of science,” to its members by way of
taunt. That taunt is out of date, and futile. The revelations
of the telescope on the one hand, and of the microscope on
the other, so far from tending to exalt the pride of human
reason, oppress man rather with a sense of utter msigni-
ficance. We have no longer, as in Shakspere’s day,

*¢Our philosophical persons to make modern
And familiar things supernatural and causeless.”

Such dogmatic half-knowledge, such pretension to superior
wisdom, have long since vanished before the more general
diffusion of education, and the humility inspired by a wider _
acquaintance with the boundless realms open to scientific
research ; and we find in their stead that our scientific men
are anxious and painstaking inquirers after truth, careful
recorders of the facts their own special course of study may
reveal. |

Another class of doubters as to the utility of the Royal
Society’s operations will be found in those who style them-
selves “ par excellence” practical men.

Very little consideration should serve to show these, how-
ever, how enormously they benefit by the progress of scien-
tific discovery, how ungratefully they too often appropriate
its results with scarcely an acknowledgment.

Anniversary Address. 11

Let any one who denies this read a pamphlet lately circu-
lated, setting forth the claims of the Reverend Mr. Clarke,
of New South Wales, in connection with the opening up of
the mineral riches of Australia, wherein is clearly shown how
valuable was this gentleman’s geological skill in directing the
first miners aright ; how little even of the poor guerdon of
thanks he has received from those who rushed afterwards to
profit by his lessons.

Or to cite a less familiar instance. Look at one of the
greatest boons conferred on all in these Colonies—the
shortening of the voyage between them and the Mother
Country. Is this due, as might naturally be inferred, to the
practical navigator? Was it effected by chance or rule of
thumb? On the contrary, the credit belongs almost solely
to Lieutenant Maury, of the United States Observatory at
Washington, by means of whose Wind and Current Charts,
in which the laborious records of innumerable voyages are
compiled, the average passage to Australia was almost im-
mediately reduced from 124 to 97 days. I might allude, if
time allowed, to the Electric Telegraph, and more especially
to the Submarine Cable, inventions which could never have
extended their incalculable blessings to our very shores, had
the Science of Electricity not been brought to its present
advanced state by the labors and experiments of unremem-
bered and unrewarded savans ; but I proceed to a third class
of objectors to the study of Natural Philosophy, more diffi-
cult to deal with still, because their objections are founded on
a vague though conscientious apprehension that it leads to
scepticism in matters of religious belief.

This scruple is not new. It once extended even to the
study of the Bible itself. Bacon found occasion to write—
* Let no man, upon a weak conceit of sobriety, or an ill-
applied moderation, think to maintain that a man can search
too far, or be too well studied in the Book of God’s Words, or

12 Anniversary Address.

in the Book of God’s Works; but rather let him endeavor at
endless progress and proficience in both.” Yet, though
silenced two centuries ago, it has of late, in consequence
of the unexpected revelations of modern science, partially
revived, and, if not often openly urged, creates strong pre-
judice against the speculations of Geology, Astronomy, and
other inductive pursuits, in the minds of many sincere
Christians.

To such I would with all respect submit—that any attempt
to limit the scope of human inquiry must of necessity break
down, whilst the mere desire to restrict it savors of want of
faith in the truth of Divine Revelation.

To reconcile God’s Works with God’s Words may, it is pos-
sible, for ever transcend the faculties of mere humanity, but
the believer may surely rest satisfied that what our present
finite capacities cannot fathom, will one day be made clear, to
all who have sought aright, in the mansions of eternity.

Convinced, in the words of the laureate, “ that God and
Nature are not then at strife,” let all echo the noble strain
into which he bursts forth,—

‘¢ Who loves not knowledge? Who shall rail
Against her beauty? May she mix

With men and prosper! Who shall fix
Her pillars? Let her work prevail !”

But I must descend to less grand and exalted themes. To
elevate the position of our Society to the extent I have indi-
cated; to render it at the same time the depository of the opi-
nions of the learned few, and the mouthpiece of the scientific
wants of the unlearned many, are tasks for gradual accom-
plishment. I have to allude to-night to one or two matters
which I should like to see occupy your special attention
during my presidential term.

The first is the consideration of a scheme which has re-
cently been proposed to the Government at home by my

Anniversary Address. 13

enlightened compeer Sir William Denison, for the publi-
cation of the Natural History, using the term im its widest
significance, of the British possessions throughout the world,
at the joint expense of the Mother Country and the Colonies,
the latter contributing the descriptive materials and scientific
data, the former being at the expense of engraving the illus-
trations and editing the work.

A more comprehensive or imperial design cannot easily be
imagined, and I am happy to state it has received the
cordial approval of the Royal Society of Great Britain, to
whom it was referred for report by the late Secretary of
State for the Colonial Department. Should it be determined
to carry it into execution, the co-operation of this Society
will no doubt be invoked, and from the able manner in which
some of its members have recently reported, at the mstance of
the Royal Society of Arts, on the productions of the Colony, I
feel confident I may reckon on its aid to accelerate the
scientific portion of the undertaking.

Inthe meanwhile, it is worthy of being considered whether,
in any event, certain principles of uniformity might not be
introduced into all official publications in this and the adja-
cent colonies, as has, I know, been attempted by the Regis-
trar-General in regard to their statistics. A great deal of
unnecessary trouble and expense, as well as of needless repeti-
tion, might thus be spared in the production of any great
National Work hereafter.

There is a second subject of scientific interest which will I
hope occupy a good deal of your attention during the ensuing
twelvemonth—namely, the superintendence of preparations
for the exploration of the interior.

I rejoice that this Colony is at length about to take its
share in this important National duty. Our very presence
here to night may be said to be attributable to the love of
science and of maritime discovery which the Anglo-Saxon

14: Anniversary Address.

race has always displayed; for you will remember that it was
to observe the transit of Venus over the Sun that Captam
Cook was despatched on his first voyage to the Southern
Ocean, and but for his subsequent exploration of the east
coast of Australia, this continent might never have been
colonised by the British nation.

It seems but right, then, that this, the wealthiest and most
civilised of the communities which have hence sprung into
existence, should make some effort to advance the cause to
which it owes its origin. Nor will that effort, I am per-
suaded, prove fruitless. We can gain, it is true, no extension
of territory by the discoveries we may make, yet no incon-
siderable commercial advantages must ultimately accrue to
the possessors of the only great haven on the south coast,
from the progress of internal settlement, and from opening
up a practicable route to the northern shores of this vast con-
tinent; whilst a clearer insight into the nature and extent of
the central desert cannot fail to elucidate phenomena now
not easily explicable, and to complete our stores of informa-
tion as to the Meteorology and Mineralogy, the Fauna and
the Flora, of this most exceptional and extraordinary portion
of the globe.

To this Society belongs the honor of first directing atten-
tion to the importance of such an expedition; it has subse-
quently—stimulated by the munificence of the anonymous
donor of £1,000—yraised a sum of nearly £3,000 towards
this object, and has by its representations induced successive
administrations to obtain from Parliament funds for the pur-
chase of camels, as well as a further liberal erant of £6,000
to supplement the private subscription.

The Society must, therefore, feel the deepest anxiety for
the successful issue of an undertaking to which it thus stands |
committed, and the Government has, in my opinion, acted
wisely in resolving to leave its guidance and control to the

Anniversary Address. 15

committee which has been appointed for the purpose, taking
care, of course, that nothing is done without its knowledge,
and that proper checks are imposed on the issue and disburse-
ment of the money voted.

The committee has prudently decided that nothing shall be
attempted during the approaching winter, which would have
been too far spent ere the exploring party could have reached
its starting poimt; but I trust that every pains will be taken
in the spring to organise and equip an expedition worthy of
this colony, and that by the commencement of the ensuing
summer it will be on its way, under a leader of approved
ability, to the depét selected upon Cooper’s Creek as the basis of
its operations, so as to be ready to take advantage of the first
rains that may fall, to prosecute its researches.

The precise direction of these must necessarily be left a
good deal to the discretion of the leader to be chosen. Were
not something more than a mere bush ride across the conti-
nent aimed at, it might be the easiest course to proceed at
once to the westward of Lake Torrens, where that daring
veteran Stuart, and my no less gallant friend the Governor
of South Australia, have already penetrated country which
seems to promise a passage to the north. My own opinion
has, however, always been in favor of directing the earlier
efforts of the expedition to ascertaining the exact eastern
limits of the Great Desert, with a view to crossing as directly
as possible to the Gulf of Carpentaria, or to Arnheim’s Land,
the great promontory by which the western shore of that
gulf is formed.

These, gentlemen, are the special questions on which I am
chiefly desirous that your immediate attention should be
bestowed.

You will not, I feel sure, suffer them to interfere with the
zealous discharge of your ordinary duties as members of the
Royal Society, but will, on the contrary, devote yourselves

16 Anniversary Address.

with redoubled ardor to the task of rendering our monthly
meetings profitable and agreeable. A noble field lies before
us. There is ample room for all!

Let every one set earnestly to work in his own sphere for
the advancement of science ; he who never did so before
taking up some branch in which more accurate knowledge is
still desirable. Let those who find aught worthy of being
communicated favor us with papers, to be discussed with
moderation of language, and in entire oblivion of bygone bick-
erings. Let this be done, and we shall hardly fail to achieve
results of importance; for, in the words of an eloquent writer
on natural history in the Cornhill Magazine, “from the illu-
mination of many minds on many points, truth must finally
emerge.” Association for scientific research is, in fact, no
longer matter of choice, but of necessity. The collection and
classification of facts is the essential element of modern pro-
gress, and it cannot be attained without division of labor and
widespread publicity. In earlier stages of the world’s his-
tory the brain of a single man, of an Aristotle or a Pliny,
sufficed to comprehend all that was yet discovered regarding
Nature, but such knowledge is now too vast to be grasped in
sufficient clearness of detail by any individual intellect. Hyen
the giant mind of Humboldt quailed before the task of giving
a physical description of the universe, and confessed the com-
pletion of his “Cosmos,” according to his original concep-
tions, to be impracticable.

True genius is indeed ever humble. The great Newton
described himself towards the end of his career as having
only gathered a few pebbles on the shores of a boundless
ocean. Who in our day shall venture to boast of domg more
than sift some grains of the sand which brims that ocean’s
shores? May we united pursue the path of scientific
inquiry, in a like spirit of humility, and with an eye to truth
alone.

Anniversary Address. Wy

** Let knowledge grow from more to more,
Yet more of reverence in us dwell.”
May we, like them, whilst fearlessly scrutinising Nature’s
laws, cease not for a moment to respect the teachings of in-
spiration, nor forget to look from Nature up to Nature’s
God.

Long as I have already trespassed on your time, I cannot
adequately give utterance to the feelings which I entertain on
this head, without, in conclusion, adopting, in its integrity,
the impressive language of one of the greatest orators and
divines the New World has yet produced, Dr. Channing :—

“I look with admiration on the intellectual force which
combines and masters scattered facts, and by analysis and
comparison ascends to the general laws of the material
universe. But the philosopher who does not sce in the
force within him something nobler than the outward nature
which he analyses—who, in tracing mechanical and chemical
agencies, is unconscious of a higher action in his own soul—
who is not led by all finite powers to the Omnipotent, and
who does not catch, in the order and beauty of the universe,
some glimpses of spiritual perfection—stops at the very
threshold of the temple of truth.”

19

Art. I.—The “ Three Sections,’ the “ Tangencies,’ and a
“Loci Problem” of Apollonius, and Porismatic Develop-
ments. By Martin Garpiner, C. E, (formerly Science
Scholar, Queen’s College, Galway).

{Read before the Royal Society, June 4, 1860, ]

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.

In the Transactions for 1859 I promised solutions to the
celebrated problems of the Greek and French schools, and
the present paper is the first instalment towards the fulfil-
ment of that promise.

I commence with the problems of Apollonius, known as
his “Three Sections,” and “ Tangencies,” and the principal
problem of his treatise on Loci; but I propose also the con-
tinuation of the development of interesting ‘‘ Porisms.”

The problems of the Three Sections are famous from the
number of geometers who have assayed their solutions.

Willebrord Snel (the first person who measured the length
of an arc of the meridian by means of a geodetic survey), who
was born at Oudewater, in Holland, in the year 1590, was
the first geometer of eminence to restore the Section of Ratio.
His solution was published at Leyden, in 1608. Early in the
eighteenth century, Dr. Halley discovered an Arabic manu-
script in the Bodleian Library containing distinctinvestigations
to the numerous subdivisions of the Section of Ratio, a Latin
edition of which he published at Oxford in the year 1706;
but there is no evidence as to whether this relic is a transcript
from the original of Apollonius, or merely a string of solutions
to its various cases by some other geometer; it covers 138
pages. Since then the principal solution is that by Reuben
Barrow, which was published about the year 1780 in his
“ Apollonius.” An application of the problem may be seen
in David Gregory’s Astronomy.

The Section of Space received an original solution from
Dr. Halley, which is similar to that given in Leslie’s Geome-
trical Analysis. Other solutions may be found scattered
through mathematical periodicals ; but as they are all similar
and incomplete, they deserve no particular notice.

Indeed, an unaccountable neglect has been shown to this
problem by the geometers who attempted the other “ Sec-

c

20 The Three Sections, Tangencies,
tions;”’ and this is the more strange as the Section of Space
is by far the most useful of the three.

The Determinate Section was solved by Willebrord
Snel, and since then by Dr. Robert Simson, Wiliam Wales,
and Petro Giannini. Snel’s and Wales’ solutions were re-
published at London in 1772, by the Rev. John Lawson, and
Giannini’s at Parma in 1773. Dr. Simson’s solution was
published in his Opera Reliquain 1776, at the private expense
of Earl Stanhope, and covers over 150 pages.

However, though the lost writings of Apollonius occupied
the attention of Newton, Halley, Simson, Burrow, Huygens,
D’Omerique, Lalouere, and a host of other distinguished
geometers, it is a most remarkable fact that none of
them perceived the liaison of “The Three Sections.”
Indeed, it was only through the instrumentality of the
Homographic Theory, as systematised by M. Chasles, Pro-
fessor of Geometry to the Faculty of Sciences of Paris, that
this intimate connection was exposed, and analogous solutions
for the first time given. Chasles’ solutions—extracted from
his correspondence with the late Professor Davies, of the
Royal Military Academy—dated 1848, were published in the
third volume of the Mathematician, and again in his recent
work entitled Traité de Géométrie Supérieure.

These latter solutions are more in detail than those in the
Mathematician, and the following accompanying observations
of the author, who has been justly styled the Newton of
Geometry, are worthy of special attention. He says :—

‘“‘Amongst thenumerous questions to which the homographic
theory can be most easily applied, are those which formed
the subject of the three works of Apollonius, entitled the
Section of Ratio, the Section of Space, and the Determinate
Section. Hach of these questions exacted a great number of
propositions. Pappus relates that there were 181 in the
Section of Ratio, 124 in the Section of Space, and 83 in the
Determinate Section. These arose from the fact that the
solution to the general question was never given directly, as
the ancient geometers proceeded to first establish the most
simple cases, and then went step by step to the more general,
so that the solution of each case always depended on those
which preceded. Moreover, each problem gave rise to as
many different questions as there were varieties in the
different relative parts of the figure.

_ In the two last centuries these problems have occupied the
attention of many eminent geometers, who endeavoured to

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 21

restore the works of Apollonius; but, although they tried to
reduce the solution of each to as few propositions as possible,
it is yet the same long and tortuous method they have all
followed. For instance, J. Leslie gives four propositions to
the Section of Ratio, six to the Section of Space, and eight
to the Determinate Section, whilst, by my method, one
solution suffices for the three questions, considered in their
most general forms.”

Now, I have already recorded my opinion concerning the
peculiar method of investigation of the ancient geometers and
their modern imitators, namely, that it is attributable to the
want of precision and generality in the indicated operations,
and involved theorems ; but I will further observe, in this
place, that the homographic theory must receive some
developments in limits to the constants of the equations,
implicating the double points of divisions on the same straight
line, before it becomes thoroughly effective in its applica-
tions. And from the absence of such developments, Chasles’
solutions are necessarily defective.

Take for instance his solution to the Section of Ratio,
which is as follows* :—

“Draw AE parallel to NN, to cut MM in E; draw AG
parallel to MM to cut NN in G; find I in MM such that
PI: RG :: m: n; bisect IE in O; in NN find H such
that PO : RH :: m:n; draw HA to cut MM in F;
from O as centre and radius = (OF:OE)? describe a circle ;
through either point C in which this circle cuts MM, draw
CA to cut NN in D: then will CAD be an answerable line.”
And his only remarks in respect to the limits of the problem
are—‘‘ And if the segments OF and OE be not on the same
side of O, the two solutions will be imaginary.”

Here it is evident that when the given straight lines MM,
NN, are parallel, the method is not intelligibly applicable. And
it is but right to observe that this is the only case in which
the principal construction given in Leslie’s Geometrical
Analysis (introducing the improvement of indicating opposite
directions by opposite signs) cannot be applied. However, the
general method of finding the double points of homographic
divisions which is given in the Géométrie Supérieure, would,
if introduced, overcome this imperfection. But there is a
much more serious defect which cannot be rectified by the
“theory,” such as it now exists, namely, the non-establish-

*See the enunciation I give to this problem.

22 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

ment of the precise limiting values for the ratio=. Surely,
it is not evident that there are two limiting positions for F,
such asf and f’, and that according as the ratio = lies outside
the limits £4 and 74; (h and fh’ being the points in which fA
and f’A cut NN), or is equal to one of them, or is com-
prehended between them, so will the corresponding points C
be real and distinct, real and coimcident, or imaginary. __

And similar remarks apply to his solutions to the Section
of Space and to the Determinate Section ; for the homogra-
phic theory will not establish the /imits, nor even hint as to
their nature or number.

My solutions are equally general with those given by
Chasles, and—as will be seen in the Generating Problem—
one wording applies to the three questions in their most
general forms. Besides, they possess the distinguishing
characteristic of being intelligibly applicable to all the parti-
cular cases; and the simple considerations, by means of
which the limits are established, will be found applicable to
the determinations of limits in numerous other important
questions.

The next in order of the works of Apollonius, after the
Determinate Section, was the “ Tangencies.”’

The enunciation of the problem, and some of the “ Lemmas’”’
used in its solution, which were preserved in the Mathemati-
cal Collection of Pappus, enabled Dr. Robert Simson, of
Glasgow, to reproduce one case (that of two circles and a
point) though not under its original form,—as may be seen in
the Appendix to his Opera Reliqua; but a more elegant solu-
tion to the same was previously given by Vieta, in his Apollo-
nius Gallus. And since Dr. Simson’s, an entirely different
solution has been given by Monsieur Auguste Cauchy, in the
“Correspondence de |’Ecole Polytechnique.”

However, neither Simson, Vieta, nor Cauchy sueceeded
in giving a direct solution to the general question.

Newton virtually solved the general question in his Prin-
cipiz, where it entered into some astronomical determina-
tions ; and, indeed, it is the only direct geometrical solu-
tion by a British geometer which applies to the various
cases, when we suppose the circles to have any value from
zero to infinity.

But the most complete and elegant soluticn hitherto given
to the “‘Tangencies,”’ is that of M. Gergonne, in the Annales
de Mathematique, which (according to M. Chasles) is an

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 23

improvement on a solution by M. Gaultier, in the Journal de
VEcole Polytechnique.

In this paper I give ten direct geometrical solutions to
the general question.

The first of these is, I consider, the simplest ever given
Its applications to the case in which two of the circles are
finite, and the other circle infinitely small, is an improvement
on Vieta’s solution ; and to the case where two of the given
circles are infinitely small, and the third finite, it is similar to
what is given by Brianchon* in the Journal de l’Ecole Poly-
~ technique.

The second solution is also applicable to all the cases of the
problem; and the idea of the auxiliary circle can be applied
in other questions, so as to render the solutions more general.

The application of the third solution to the case, in which
two of the given circles are finite, and the third infinitely
small, leads to M. Cauchy’s method for this case, &c.

The other solutions are applicable to all the leading cases
of the problem, but fail to indicate graphical constructions for
some of the minor ones, owing to the peculiarities inherent
in the involved theorems, or in the methods of contemplating
or expounding them. The tenth is most probably a reproduc-
tion of Apollonius’ solution.

The “Loci Problem,” which I have undertaken, is ina
more general form than was accorded to it by Apollonius.
It comprehends almost the entire substance of the Benoa
Book, as restored by Dr. Simson.

The solution is direct and general; besides, it shows that
when the ratio is unrestricted in sign, the locus is not (as
usually intimated) @ circle, but two real circles, a real circle
and a point, or a real circle and an imaginary one, according
to relative states of the data.

Particular cases only of this problem were solved by Dr.
Simson, all of which have been republished in Leslie’s Geo-
metrical Analysis. His methods are inapplicable to the
general question, as they depend on the reality of a point in the
straight line passing through the given points, which may be-
come imaginary, even when the locus is real.

A method of constructing the locus, having many
points approaching to mine, is given in the Geometry of the
Library of Useful Knowledge; but there, too, the process
depending on points which may be imaginary when the locus

* Professor Davies has erroneously confounded Brianchon’s with Pappus’
solution. —(See vol. 3, page 227, Mathematician. )

24 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

is real, is applicable only in particular states of the data. In
the Notes will be found a genuine ancient porism, from which
the problem originated.

I might also mention that Francis Van Schooten, Professor
of Mathematics at Leyden, published a restoration of some of
the particular cases of this problem, in 1657 ; and that a like
task was performed in an algebraic form by Fermat, Coun-
cillor to the Parliament of Toulouse, in his Opera Varia
Mathematica, published in the year 1679.

It is scarcely necessary to remark, that in the present
improved state of Algebraic Geometry, it would bean easy
matter to solve the general case of this problem; but, to arrive
at a construction of the Locus, such as I give, would be
impossible without introducing other geometrical considera-
tions than those to be found in ordinary Algebraic Elements ;
besides, the complete discussion would present difficulties
which none but experienced analysts could overcome. |

The ‘‘Porisms” in the present paper, with those in the
Transactions for 1859, belong to the most numerous and
useful system in the whole range of elementary theorems.
Some few of them—as is evident from Professor Davies’ con-
tributions to the Mathematician—have been already noticed
by Mr. Mark Noble, and by Professors Playfair and Wallace ;
but their number is so few, that when they occur I
will make no scruple of reproducing them amongst the
classes to which they belong. I have already given proof of
their efficiency in the solution of difficult problems.

They are most probably but restitutions of a part of the
lost treatise of Euclid, known as his Second Elements—com-
posed when his geometrical knowledge was fully matured, and
which, there is strong reason to suspect, contained all the
principles developed in the elementary writings of Gergonne,
Poncelet and Chasles.

Having said thus much relating to the substance of my
paper, I think it’right, before closing these prelimimary re-
marks, to explain the nature of the improved ideas and
theorems on which the spirit of my investigations is mainly
dependent.

To do this, I may at once state that all the great masters
of Logic have observed that there are two points which must
be rigorously attended to in correct systems of reasoning.

First :—That the propositions employed as premises are
unambiguous, and correctly understood.

Second :—That the steps (the auxiliary operations and

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 25

theorems) by means of which the conclusion is drawn from those
premises, are true, unambiguous, and correctly understood.

This being borne in mind, it is evident that if from a given
point in a given indefinite straight line, we were told to cut off
apart equal in length toa given finite straight line, we should
naturally ask in which direction from the point we are to
take the part; as the problem would be ambiguous if either
direction should not be answerable to the end in view. And
if the solution of some other problem depended on this opera-
tion (as just defined), and that one only of the parts which
can be cut off is applicable, then it is evident there would exist
an ambiguity in the solution.

The method of indicating opposite directions on the same
straight line in distinct terms—such as positive and negative
directions, or right and left directions, obviates this difficulty ;
but though long since adopted in Trigonometry and Algebraic
Geometry, it is only in the modern French pure geometry,
that it has been consistently introduced.

Again, ifin any general investigation or construction it were
necessary to draw a straight line through a particular point,
making an angle of a given magnitude with another straight
line, then, as two such lines can be drawn through the point,
and that but one of them may be answerable, it is clear there
should be a precise method of indicating each of these lines.

Further, if on any straight line, for imstance, a particu-
larised one of the last two, it werenecessary tocut off a segment
from a point therein whose length should have some peculiar
relation to other magnitudes and positions, and that but one
segment from the point would be answerable ; then, too, it is
obvious we should have a method of particularising directions
in one straight line in respect to the directions in others.

Yet itis only in my previous papers such methods are
either advocated or applied.

And without those improvements in the manner of indicat-
ing angles, it is not only the elementary geometry of the
straight line and circle that suffers, but also the conic sections
and higher departments; for there, too, geometers have failed
to expose the general truths comprehended in the theory.
One instance of this is supplied by the following well-known
theorem :—‘‘ When the base AB of a triangle is given in
position and magnitude, and that the difference of the angles
CAB, CBA at the base is constant, then will the locus of the
vertex C be a hyperbola.”

For, as the locus of the vertex is not a hyperbola under

26 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

these conditions, but part of one, it follows that, in all
inquiries in which the theorem is used, the results must be
defective in generality.

The complete theorem which should replace it is as
follows :—

If aa and 0b are fixed straight lmes through fixed points
A and B, should ce and dd be any other pair of straight
lines through A and B, making the angle cc right to aa equal
to the angle 64 right to dd, then will the locus of the inter-
section of cc and dd be a rectangular hyperbela through the
fixed pomts A and B.

Indeed, a due consideration of the requirements of a com-
plete logic, or of the laws of nature, will show that the im-
provements are necessary to the explicit enunciations of
implied operations, and confer precision and generality on
most important theorems; and are therefore, in so far as these
are understood, a correct step in the advancement of pure
science.

Finally, I think it right to remark that, in mdicating
opposite formations of magnitudes, I have purposely avoided
the terms positive and negative, as so many meanings are
given to these words by metaphysicians and others. Besides,
the introduction of right and left renders the language more
elegant, and often affords important advantages in allowing
us to decide, according to circumstances, whether right or
left should be indicated by plus or minus.

Martin Garpiner, C.K.

DEFINITIONS.

1. If astraight line, which we may conceive produced to in-
finity in its primitive directions, be supposed to become rigid,
and one point of it to be permanently fixed, the rigid line
being otherwise capable of movement in any plane in which
it may lie, then it is evident that there are but rwo ways of
revolving the line im this plane; one being by means of a
“vight”’ rotation, and the same as that in which the hands of
a watch move if the dial-plate be towards us, in the plane;
and the other being by means of the contrary, or “ left” ro-
tation.

2. If AA and BB be two straight lines, and I their point
of intersection, then the “angle [A right to B,’ means the
angle formed at I by a rigid line having [ as a fixed pivot, and

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 27

revolving from a position in AA by a right rotation until its
first arrival into the position BB, the revolving line being
supposed produced indefinitely on both sides of the pivot.
And a similar meaning applies to the term “angle IA left
es i

3. If AA and BB be two straight lines, and I their point
of intersection, then ‘‘ angle IA right round to IB” means the
angle formed at I by a straight line having one of its ex-
tremities in this point, revolved by right rotation from the
actual direction IA until it arrives in the actual direction IB.
And a similar meaning applies to the term “ angle LA left
round to IB.”

4. If AA and BB be two straight lines, and I their point
of intersection, the angle “‘right AB” means the angle IA
right round to IB, and the angle “‘ deft 4B” means the angle
TA left round to IB.

5. The angle (AB) means either one or the other of these
last two, indifferently.

NOTE.

Tt is necessary to restrict the meaning of the term “ angle
(AB),” given in Chasles’ Géométrie Supérieure, to that which
has been just defined; for otherwise, his enunciated pro-
perties of the homographic pencils will not hold good as to
sign,

See my paper entitled “ Improvements in Fundamental
Ideas and Elementary Theorems of Geometry,” in the T’rans-
actions for 1859.

SECTION OF RATIO.

Given the points P and R in the given straight lines MM
and NN; through a given point A to draw a straight line
CAD to cut the given lines in C and D, so that the segments

28 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

PC and RD shail be to each other in the given ratio of m to n,
( = being of given magnitude, and of known sign in respect to
directions on MM and NN).

ANALYSIS.

Suppose on MM and NN we take PQ and RS, so that
PQ: RS:: PC: RD:: m: n, and that we draw PO and
QO making the angles PO right to Q, and QO right to P re-
spectively equal to the angles RA right to 8, and SA right to
R. Then it is evident that the triangle POC is similar to
RAD, and that the angle OC right to P is equal to the angle
AD right to R. Hence, H being the point of intersection of
PO and RA, it follows that a circle can pass through AOC
and H; but A, O, and H are known points: therefore the
point C, in which the circle AHO cuts MM, is known, and
therefore also the lime CAD. Bat

COMPOSITION.

On MM and NN take segments PQ and RS, having to
each other the given ratio of m:n; draw PO and QO,
making the angles PO right to M, and QO right to M equal
respectively to the angles RA right to N, and SA right to N;
through A, O, and the intersection H of.PO and AR, de-
scribe a circle; through either poimt C, in which this circle
AHO cuts MM, draw CA to cut NN in D: then will CAD
be an answerable line.

For draw OC. The angle AH or AR right to C or D is equal
angle OH or OP right to C, and therefore since the angle
PO right to Q or C is equal angle RA right to S or D, it is
evident that the triangles POC and RAD are similar, and
that PC: : RD. :: PO . RAG PQ er Sr ine

DISCUSSION.

It is evident that when = is restricted as to sign, there is

but one point O, one circle OAH, and two answerable points
C (real or unreal). .

If ~ be unrestricted in sign, then, obviously, there are two
points O, two corresponding circles AOH, and, therefore,
four answerable points C. Moreover, as the points O must

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 29

be on opposite sides of MM, it is evident two of these points
C must be always real.

. “ye a ae ° m
Limiting Values for the Ratio —.

When A and H are on opposite sides of MM, the corre-
sponding points C are always real; but when A and Hare on
the same side of MM, the reality of the points C is dependent
on the position of O, or, which amounts to the same thing,
on the value of ~ . Again, since PO: RA :: PQ: RS, it
is evident that if O’ and O’ be the points in which the two
circles through, A and H touching MM again cut PH, then
will ;) and ix be the limiting values of “. Moreover, it is
evident that, according as any value of “ is comprehended
between these limits, or equal to one of them, or not compre-
hended between them, so will the corresponding points C be

imaginary, or real and coincident, or real and distinct.

Porismatic Relations of the Data.

It is evident the problem is indeterminate only when the
circle AOH is indeterminate. When O coincides with A,
and that PO cuts AH, then H also coincides with A, and
the circle AOH is infinitely small; but when O coincides with
A, and that PO and RA form one straight line, then it is
obvious that any circle touching this straight line in A is an
answerable circle AHO: therefore in this case there are in-
numerable answerable points C and lines CAD. The problem
under these last conditions (viz., when we have MM parallel
to NN, and PRA a straight line, and the ratio = equal to

fs) is said to be ‘porismatic’”’—any straight line CAD

through A being an answerable line.

Remarks.

1. When MM and NN are parallels, it is evident PO
and RA are parallels and that H is at infinity (when O
and A are not coimcident), and the circle AOH infinitely
great. In this case the straight line AO, lying in the infinite
circumference, will give one point C in its intersection with
MM: the other point C is evidently at infinity on MM.

2. In all cases QO and SA intersect in the circumference
of the circle AOH. |

30 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

THE SECTION OF SPACE.

M G \

Given the points Q and U in the gwen straight lines MM
and NN; through a given point A to draw a straight line
CAD cutting MM and NN in C and D, so that QC.UD shall
be equal to m.n (where m.n is a given magnitude of known sign
in respect to the directionson MM and NN).

ANALYSIS.

Suppose that in the given lines we take the segments QP
and UR such that @P.UR = QC.UD = m.n, and that we
draw PO and QO making the angles PO right to M, and QO
right to M, respectively equal to AR right to U, and UR right
to A. Then the similar triangles POQ, ARU, give @O.UA
= QP.UR, and therefore @O.UA = QC.UD; and .°. as the
angle QC right to O is equal the angle UA right to D, the
triangles COQ and ADU are similar, and the angle CO right
to Q is equal AD right to U; but FO right to Q is equal
AR right to U; therefore it follows that angle AR right to
D or C is equal OP right to C. Hence, if H be the point in
which RA and PO intersect, a circle can pass through AOH
and C: but the points AOH are known; therefore the point
C in which the circle AOH cuts MM is known, and hence
CAD.

\
COMPOSITION.

In the given lines MM and NN take any two segments QP
and UR, such that @P.UR = m.n; draw PO and QO, mak-
ing the angles PO right to Q, and @O right to P equal re-
spectively to AR right to U,and UR mght to A; through A,

and Loci of Apollonius, &e. 51

O, and the intersection H of RA and PO, describe a cirele ;
through either point C in which this circle cuts MM draw
CA to cut NN in D: then will CAD be an answerabie line.

For draw CO.

The angle OH or OP right to C is = AH or AR right to
C or D; and the angle PO right to Q = AR right to U;
therefore the angle CO right to Q is equal AD right to U;
hence the triangles ADU, COQ are similar, and QC.UD =
QO.UA. But the similar triangles PQO, AUR give Q@O.UA
= QP.UR;; therefore QC.UD = QP.UR = aun.

DISCUSSION.

When 7.” is restricted in sign (as im the enunciation), there
is evidently but one answerable point O, and therefore but
one circle AOH, and two points C, real or unreal, according
as the circle AOH cuts MM im real or imaginary points,

If m.n be unrestricted as to sign, then there are evidently
two answerable points O, and therefore two circles AOH, and
four points C, and lines CAD : moreover, it is evident that
the points O are on opposite sides of MM, and therefore that
two of the points C must be always real.

Limiting Values for m.n.

It is evident the poimts C can be imaginary only whe
A, O, and H are on the same side of MM. We know one
poimt A in the circle AOHC, but, in order to arrive in a sim-
ple manner at the limiting positions for the circle AOH, it
would be well if we could find another point in the circum-
ference. We can find sucha point. For, if T be the point in
which QO again cuts the circle, the angle AH right to T =
OH right to T, and is therefore = RA or RH right to N;
and hence AT is parallel to NN, and the point T in which it
cuts QO is known.

Now it is evident that by putting O’ and QO’ for the points
in which the circles through A and T, touching Mii, cut
QO, then will UA.QO’ and UA.QO’ be the required limits.
Moreover, it is evident that according as any value of m.n is
comprehended between these limits, or equal to one of them,
or not comprehended between them, so will the correspond-
ing points C be imaginary, or real and coincident, or real and
distinct.

Porismatic Relations of the Data.

Itis evident the problem becomes indeterminate only when
the circle AOH becomes indeterminate. Now the circle

32 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

AOH evidently becomes indeterminate when O and A coin-
cide, and that QOAT is parallel to NN. In this state of the
data all pomts in MM are answerable points C, and the
problem is said to be “ porismatic.” It is evident that UA
is parallel to MM when QOA is to NN, and that m.n (in this
porismatic case) is equal QA.UA.

THE DETERMINATE SECTION.

Given two pair of points P,S, and Q,R, ina straight line MN ;
to find a point C in the line such that PC .SC : QC . RC
: 0: k.(in which the sign of < is known, as well as its
magnitude ).
ANALYSIS.

Suppose we assume a point A, and that we draw PG and
QG making the angles PG right to Q, and QG right to P
respectively equal to RA right to §, and SA right to R; and
that E and F are the poimts ia which AC cuts QG and PG.

The triangles CPE, CQF, are similar to CRA, CSA, and we
evidently have PE . SA: QF .RA:: PC .SC: QC.
RC :: 2: k; and therefore PE has to QF the known ratio
of RA.J to SA.k. Hence (see Porism 4 in Transactions
for 1859), the circle EFG passes through a known point O in
the circumference of circle PGQ, which is such that PO :
QOe ster ey OPE.

Again, the angle EF or EC right to O = GF or GQ right
to O = PQ or PC right to O; therefore a circle can pass
through EPC and O; and hence, as AR is parallel to PE, if
H be the point of intersection of PO and AR, it follows that
a circle can pass through OHA and C; but O, H, and A are
known points; therefore the circle OHA is known, and also
the point C in which it cuts MN.

COMPOSITION.

Assume a point A (not in the given line); draw PG and
QG making the angles PG and QGright to M equal re-

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 30

spectively to the angles RA and SA right to N; describe the
circle PGQ, and in it find O (on the same or opposite sides
of PQ with G according as OG and ERA have like or un-
hike signs) such that PO : QO:: 1.RA : k&.SA; draw OP
to cut AR in H; describe the circle OAH: either point C
in which it cuts MN is an answerable point.

Let E and F be the points in which GP and GQ cut AC.

It is evident PE is parallel RA, and QF to SA, and
therefore that PE.SA : QF.RA :: PC.SC: QC.RC. Again,
the angle EP right to C being equal AR or AH right to C,
it is equal OH or OP right to C; therefore a circle can pass
through OCPE, and the angle EC right to O = PC or PQ
right toO = GQright to O; hence, acircle can pass through
GFOH, and therefore (see Porism 4, Transactions for 1859),
PE : QF :: PO : QO::J.RA : &.SA, and therefore
PE.SA : QF.RA :: 7 : k, and consequently PC.SC :
OG BUi:: ¢.:k,

DISCUSSION.

It is evident the point of intersection I of OQ and SA isin
the circumference OHA (for the angle IQ or IO right to A
= QO right to G = PO right to G, and ... = HO right to
A).
When ; is (as is supposed in the enunciation) confined to
a particular sign, there is but one point O, one circle AHO,
and therefore two (and but two) answerable points P—both
real or both imaginary.

But if i were unrestricted in sign, it is evident there would
be two points O, and therefore two circles OHA, and four
points C. Moreover, since the points O must be on different
sides of MN, two of these points C must he always real.

Limiting Values for the Ratio :
When the segments PS and QR lie partly on each other,
the points H and I lie on opposite sides of MN, and therefore
the corresponding point C must be always real.

When one of the segments PS and QR lies entirely on the
other, it is evident the points A and G are on the same side

of MN, and therefore it is only when the ratio ; is positive,
that O, H and Acan be on the same side of MN; in otherwords,
the points C are real for all real negative values of - ; but

for positive values of $ the points C are real only when the
D

34 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

eircle OHA cuts MN in real points. Hence, it is necessary
to define the positive limiting values of £ so as to be enabled
to know, @ priori, when the corresponding points C are real,
&e. This is done by drawing the two straight lines PO'H’ to
cut the circle PGQ and line AR in O’ and H’ such that the
two circles AO’H’ shall touch MN (these circles can be easily
described, since the point X, in which AG cuts the circle PGQ,
is common to all circles AHO. For the angle XG right to
O = PGright to O = HA right toO = XA right to O); for

aD er ia SAO! RA.PO' , -
then the limits are GoGo and sq:qo'; and these lmmits are

evidently such that according as any value of < lies outside
them, or is equal to one of them, or is comprehended between
them, so will the corresponding points C be real and distinct,
real and coincident, or imaginary.

When the segments PS and QR have no part in common,
it is evident A and G are on opposite sides of MN, and that
it is only when the given ratio is negative that the points
OHTA can be on the same side of MN, and .-. only that the
points C can be imaginary. Hence, in this case, it is neces-
sary to define the negative limiting values of =. These

pee iN RA.Po' RA.Po! : :
limiting values §iQ,” SaA-Qd are obviously found in the

same manner as in last case, and like remarks as to their
nature apply.

When Q coincides with §, it is evident the points C are
always real, and that one of them is coincident with QS.

When P coincides with R, it is evident the pomts C are
real, and one of them in PR.

When RB and S are coincident, and P and Q are distinct,
then AR and AS are coincident, and G is at infinity, and .-.
O is in the straight line PQ; moreover, H coimcides with
RS; .. the points C are real, and one of them coincident
with R.

When P and Q are coincident, and R and § distinct ;
then G coincides with P and O; but although the triangle
POQ is infinitely small, it is known in species, and therefore
POH is known in position, and hence the circle OHA. The
points C are real, and one of them coincident with PQ.

Porismatic Relations of the Data.

If R and § be coincident, and that we have P and Q also
coincident, then as we may have conceived PQ and RS to

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 35

have had any peculiar relation, such as a constant ratio, &c.,
during their diminution, it is evident we may suppose G any-
where whatever in the line PQG. And it is clear that for all
values of £ other than unity, the pomt O must coincide with
PQ, and one point C be coincident with PQO, and the other
point C with RSH. But for the value of + = unity, the
point O may be anywhere in the circle GQP (which touches
MM in PQ), and .*. a pomt C may be anywhere in MM—
the state of the data being “ porismatic.” And it is evident
that when P coincides with R and S with Q, and that - =
unity, then, also, will the problem be “ porismatic.”’

Peculiar Case.

If in MN we suppose SR and RU equals respectively to /
and k; then we have PC.SC : QC.RC :: SR: RU.

Now, if we suppose R and U to remain fixed, and S to
become greater and greater in distance from the fixed points,
until it vanishes at infinity, then for points C at a finite
distance, we shall have SR = SC, and hence

PC.RU = OC.HE.

This case of the problem can be expressed as follows :—
“ Given three points, P,Q, R, ina straight line, to find another
C in the same, such that K being a line of given length (and
known sign in respect to the directions on MN), we shall have

PC.K = QC.RC.”

- he solution may evidently be worded thus:—In MN
make RU = K; draw RA (not in MN) equal RU; draw
PO and QO, making the angles PO right to Q, and QU right
to P equal respectively to AR right to U, and UR right to A ;
produce PO to cut RA in I; describe the circle OHA, and
it will cut MN in the required points C, C.

36 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

GENERATING PROBLEM TO THE THREE SECTIONS.

M

Given the points P Q on « straight line MM, and the points
R S ona straight line NN; through two given poinis A B
to draw two straight lines AI, BI, making the angle IA right
to B of a given angular magnitude 0 right, and such that C and
D being the points in which AI and BI cut MM and NN, we
shall have PC.SD : QC.RD :: 7: k; i being of given mag-
nitude and known sign in respect to the directions on MM and

NN).
ANALYSIS.

The circle AIB is evidently known. Suppose we draw a
straight line CHI’, making the angle CH or CF right to P or
Q equal the angle DB right to R or §, and that through P
and Q we draw PE and QF to cut it, so that the angle PE
right to C = RB right to D, and the angle QI right to C
= SBright to D. Then the triangles CPE, CQF are similar
to the triangles DRB, DSB; moreover it is evident that from
these triangles we have the relation PE.SB : QF.RB::
POSD {OC RD ib ep.

Let G be the point of intersection of PE and QI’.

From the last proportion we have PE to QF in the known
ratio of 1.RB to k.SB; aud therefore (see Porism 4th, in
Transactions of 1859) the circles EGI', CQF, CPE pass
through a point O in the circumference of the circle PGQ,
which is such that PO : QO :: 1.RB : %.5B; and hence, as
PG and QG are known, the point O in the circle PQG is

known.

Again, the angle OC right to P = EC right to P= BD

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 37

right to R; and therefore if L be the other point in which
RB cuts the circle AIB, and H that in which OP cuts AL,
we have the angle OC right to P or H = BD or BI right to
R or L = AI or AC right to L or H; hencea circle can pass
through O, H, A, and G; but O, H, and A are known points ;
therefore the point Cin which the circle OHA cuts MM is
known, and therefore the point I in which CA cuts the circle
AIB, and also the point D in which IB cuts NN,

COMPOSITION.

Through A and B describe the circle AIB, such that I
being any point in its circumference, the angle IA right to B
= Oright; draw PG and QG, making the angle PG right
to M = RB right to N, and the angle QGright to M = SB
right to N ; describe the circle PGQ, and 7 - (on the same

or opposite side of PQ with G, according as aa & and ESB have
like or unlike signs) find O such that PO : QO :: LRB :
k.SB; draw RB to cut the circle AIB in L; draw OP to cut
Al in H; describe the circle OHA ; through either point C
in which the circle OHA cuts MM draw CA to cut the circle
ABLin I; draw BI to cut NN in D: then will AI and BI
be as required.

For through the other point E in which the circle OCP
euts GP, draw CE to cut QG in F.

The angle KC right to P is = OC right to P or H = AC
or Al right to H or L = BI or BD right to L or R; there-
fore, since the angle PC right to E — RD right to B, the
triangles PCE, RDB are similar, and CP or CQ right to E or
F is equal DR or DS right to B.

And since the angle QG or QF right to P or C is equal
angle SB right to R or D, therefore the triangles CQF, DSB
are similar. Now from these two pair of triangles we
evidently have PE.SB : QF.RB :: PC.SD : QC.RD; but
(see Porism in Transactions for 1859) we have PE : QF ::
PO : QO:: L.RB : k&.SB, and therefore PE.SB : QF.RB
eee nenee PC.SD :'QC.RD'?? 0 2k.

DISCUSSION,

Since there are two points of intersection C, there are two
solutions to the problem, both real or both imaginary, accord-
ing as these points are real or imaginary,

If the ratio 4 be unrestricted as to sign, then it is evident

38 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

there are two answerable points O, and therefore two circles
OHA, and four points C. Moreover, the points O being
necessarily on opposite sides of PQ, it follows that two of these
four points C must be always real.

Limiting Values for 6 Right. *

There are evidently limits to 0 right only when A and O
are on the same side of MM. .

Now the point O is found independent of the magnitude of
6; and it is evident that by describing the two circles through
A and O which touch MM, and putting H’ and H’ for the
points in which OP cuts them again, and I’ and I’ for the
points in which AH’ and AH’ cut RB, then will the angles
VA right to B and I’A right to B be the limiting values
for the angles 6 right. Andif X be the pomt im which AO
cuts I’I', it is evident that according as a and = have like
or unlike signs, so will any straight lme through A cutting
I'l’ and H’H' in L and H give = and #4 of like or unlike
sign. Hence it follows that when or and = have like signs,
the limiting values include between them all values (and no
others) of the angle 6 right, for which AI and BI are imaginary ;
and when our and be have unlike signs, the limiting values
have outside them all values (and no others) of angle 6 right,
for which AI and BI are imaginary. And when 6 right is
equal cither of the limiting values, the lines AI are coincident
and real.

Limiting Values for the Ratio =
When the points C may be imaginary, the point O must
evidently fall on the same side of PQ with the points A and
H. And it is evident we arrive at the limiting values of i,
or GORE» or (which is equivalent) of ae by finding the points
o’ and o’ in the circle PGQ, so that h’ and h’ being the points

im which Po’ and Po’ cut Al, the circles Ah’o’ and Ah’o!
touch MM. —

Moreover, it is evident that the two ratios eae and RG
are the required limits, and that they have the same sign, and

that according as any value of 4 (having like sign) is of a

* Geometers who do not adopt my improved methods of indicating angles,
will find it impossible to define the Zimits of the angular magnitude @,

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 39

magnitude comprehended between them, or equal to one of
them, or not comprehended between them, so accordingly will
the circle AOH corresponding cut MM in two imaginary
points, in two real and coincident points, or two real and dis-
tinct points C.

Porismatic Relations of Data.

1. It is evident the problem becomes indeterminate
whenthe circle OAH becomes indeterminate, &c. Now, if the
circle PQG passes through A, and that the point O coincides
with A, then H on AL will also coincide with A; if, AL
does not coincide with OP; and, as the chord OH on OP is
equal zero, the circle AHO must be infinitely small. But if
AL and OP coincide, then, although AH and OH are
“infinitely smalls,”’ they lie both on AL, and therefore it is
evident that any circle touching AL in A is an answerable
circle AHO. ‘Therefore in this last state of the data the
poimts C are innumerable, and the problem is “ porismatic,”
as well as if we conceived O to move to A having OP parallel
AL, and thus causing H to be indeterminate when O coin-
cides with A.

2. If R coincides with §, and that we suppose Q to approach
P until it comes to coincide with it, then G is at infinity, and
the straight lime MM lies in the infinite circumference PQG.
And for all values of + other than + the point O coincides
with PQ, and one point C is coincident with PQ, and the
other point C with the point in which AL cuts MM. But

when - = |, then as the point O, and the point C coincident
with O, may be anywhere in MM, the problem is said to be

“ porismatic.”
Remarks concerning Particular Cases.

1. Since PC.SD : QC.RD :: 1: &, or, which is the same

thing, since
PC.(RD - RS) : (PC —- PQ).RD :: /: &, therefore,
when 1 = k, we have
PC.RS = PQ.RD
or PC : RD:: PQ RS

Hence we derive a method of solving the problem—* Given
the points P, R in the given straight lines MM, NN; through
two given points A and B to draw Al and BI making the
angle 1A right to Bof a given magnitude 0 right, and such that

40 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

C and D being the points in which AI and BI cut MM and
NN, we shall have PC to RD wa a given ratio of m to n.”

It is evident that the points G and O are coincident, and
.. the solution of this enunciated problem can be worded as
follows :—

Take Qand S on MM and NN, so that PQ: RS::
m:n; through A and B describe the circle AIB, which is
such that I being any point in it, we have the angle IA right
to B = @right; throvgh P and Q draw PG and QG, mak-
ing the angles PG and QG right to M, equals respectively to
the angles RB and SB right to N, through L where RB
again cuts circle ABI, draw AL to cut PG in H; describe
the circle AHG ; through either pomt C in which it cuts
MM draw CA to cut circle AIB again in I; a ae to cut
NN in D; then will PC : RD : far: RS : n.

2. If we suppose not only J = k, but also 6 = vee and B
coincident with A; then it is ev ident the problem becomes
the ‘ Section of Ratio” of Apollonius. Moreover, it is
evident the preceding solution to the Apollonian problem
flows directly from the present more general problem, for in
this particular state of the data we evidently have G coinci-
dent with O, and B, L, and I coincident with A, and ARH
in straight line, &c.

83. Since PC.SD : QC.RD :: 1 : k, if we suppose in NN
SR and RU always equal / and k, we have PC.SD : QC.RD
:: SR: RU

Now, if we suppose R and U to remain fixed, and that S
becomes infinitely distant, then for a point D at a finite
distance, we have SR = SD, and therefore PC.RU =
QC.RD.

Hence (QC—@QP). RU = QC.RD, and (RU—RD) QC =
QPS DUOC — PiU:

Or, UD.QC = QP.UR = a known magnitude.

Hence, we derive a method of solving the problem.
“ Given the points U and Q in given straight lines NN and
MM ; through two given points A and B to draw two straight
lines AI and BI making the angle LA right to B equal a gwen
angular magnitude @ right, and such that C and D bemg the
respective points in which AI and BI cut MM and NN, we
shall have UD.QC = mn.” Where m.n is given in sign, ‘and
the directions on the given lines particularised.

It is evident that in this case G coincides with P, and that
circle GPQ touches PG at this double point, and .-. that the
triangle QOP is similar to URB, &c.

and Loci of Apollonius, &e. A

Hence, the solution of this enunciated problem may be
made as follows:—In MM and NN take P and R such that
QP.UR = m.n; describe the circle AIB such that I being
any point in it, the angle IA right to B = @ right; through
P draw a line PG making the angle PG night to M = RB
right to N, and describe the circle QOP through Q which
touches this lime at P; find the point O in this cirele such
that PO : QO :: RB: RU; through the point L in which
RB again cuts the circle AIB, draw AL to cut POin H;
describe the cirele AOH; through either pomt C in which
this circle cuts MM, draw CA to cut the circle AIB again in
I; draw BI to cut MN in D. Then will AI and BI be
answerable lines.

Moreover, it is evident that the angles PO and QO right
to M are respectively equals to the angles BR and UR right
to U and B, and that we can, therefore, determine PO and
QO without drawing PG or describing the circle QPOG.

4. If in addition to the conditions of this third case, we
suppose the angle 6 = zero, and B coincident with A ; then,
it is. evident, the problem becomes the “‘ Section of Space”
of Apollonius. Here again it is evident RAH is a straight
line, and that the solution which I have given to this Apol-
lonian problem has been derived from the present more
general problem.

5. We have PC.SD : QC.RD :: 2: k, when the angle 0
has any finite magnitude; and it is evident that when 6 =
zero, and that MM coincides with NN, we have PC.SC :
QC.RC :: 1: k, which is the ‘‘ Determinate Section” of
Apollonius. It is further evident that the solution just given
to this Apollonian problem has been derived from the present
more general one.

REMARKS.

If K be the other point in which SB cuts the circle AIB ;
then it is obvious AK and QO intersect in a point T in the
circle AHO.

If U be the other point of intersection of the circle OGPQ
with any circle AOH, and that PV be drawn parallel to AL
to cut circle OGPQ in V, then will VUA be in one straight
line. Therefore, as the point U is known independent of the
ratio, the limiting circles Av’o’U passing through A and U
can be hence easily described.

It is also evident QV is parallel to AK, &e.

42 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

Again it may be remarked that if we could solve the
generating problem by a different method, we could thence
derive other analogous solutions to the ‘the Three Problems
of Section.’

However, instead of giving another solution to the problem,
in which it is required to have PC.SD : QC.RD::J/: k.
I will now solve the more extended generating problem in
which it is required to have Cg

PC.SD+p.s : QC.RD+ 9.7 :: 1: k, where the magnitudes
and signs of the rectangles p.s, and g.7 are given.

ANALYSIS.

(The figure to be supplied by the reader.)

Suppose we draw PG, QG, making the angle PG and QG
right to M, respectively equals to SN and RN right to B..
Then the point G is given.

If we draw CE and CF meeting PG and QG in E and F,
so that the angles EC and FC right to P and Q shall be each
equal to angle DB right to Ror 8. Then it is evident the
triangles QCF, PCH, are similar to the triangles RBD, SBD,
and that a circle can pass through CFEG. Moreover, it is
evident PC.SD and QC.RD are respectively equal to PE.SB
and QF.RB, and therefore we have PE.SB+p.s : QF.RB+
Garin ts k.

And if in PE and QF we take the points J and T, such
that JP.SB and TQ.RB are equals respectively to p.s and PP;
then it is evident the points J and T are known, and that
JE.SB : TE.RB :: 72: k. Now, from the porisms in Trans-
actions for 1859, we know that the circle HFG will cut the
oe circle JTG ina point O such that JO.SB : TO.RB
:: 2: k; and therefore O is a known point im cir cle JTG.

Again, let V be the point in which CA cuts circle CEFG,
and U that in which GV cuts circle JTG, and H that in which
UA again cuts circle JTGU.

We have angle HO right to U or A = GO right to U or
V=CO right to V or A, and therefore a circle can pass
through COH and A; but the angle VG right to C being
equal EG right to C it is equal DN right to B, and .°. if W
be the point in which GV cuts NN, a circle can pass through
VIDW, and the angle WV right to D or N is equal the angle
IV or IA right to D or B, and thererefore GW is known in
position. Moreover, the pomt U where GW cuts circle

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 43

JTG is known, and the other point H in which UA cuts
eircle JTGU, and .*. the point C in which the circle HAO
euts MM, and hence CAI and BID.

The composition, &c., may be easily made. However, in
order to familiarise the methods of arriving at the limits of
angular magnitudes in other questions, I will indicate the
nature of the limits of @ right.

Limiting Values for 6 Right.

As the points O and A are known independently of 6, .*. it
is evident that by describing the two circles through O and A
which touch MM, and putting H’ and H’ for the pomts in
which they again cut circle JTG, and U’ and U’ for those in
which AH’ and AH’ again cut this same circle, and W’ and
W’ for the points in which GU’ and GU’ cut NN, then will
the angles W’G right to N and W’Gright to N be the limiting
values of 6 right. And, if ’ and w’ be the pomts in which
GA cuts the circle JTG and lne NN, it is evident that G
may be regarded as a position of U corresponding to w’.

Moreover, it is evident that if w’ lies between W’ and W’,
and that h' is not inside or outside doth circles through A and
O touching MM, then will the circle OAV’ cut MM in imagi-
nary poits; and the hmiting values for @ right are evidently
such as to include between them all values of 6 right (and no
others) for which the lines AI and BI areimaginary. But if
w' lies between W’ and W’, and that /’ is mside or outside
both circles through A and O touching MM, then will the
limiting values of @ right be such as to have outside them all
values of @ right (and no others) for which the lmes AI and
BI are imaginary.

And it is further evident, that if w’ lies outside W’W’ and
that 4 is not mside or outside both circles through A and O
touching MM, then will the limiting values of @ right be such
as to have outside them all values of @ right (and no others)
for which AI and BI are imaginary; but if w’ lies outside
W’'W’, and that /’ is inside or outside both circles through A
and O touching MM, then will the limiting values of @ right
be such as to include between them all values of 6 right (and
no others) for which AI and BI are imaginary.

When @ right is equal either limit, the lines AI are coinci-
dent and real.

Moreover, it is evident that when A and O are not on the
same side of MM there are no real limits to angle 6 right, &e.

4A, The Three Sections, Tangencies,

NOTES.

1. Itis evident that the porisms in the Transactions for
1859 can, with many others, be derived from the porismatic
states of the data of this or the first Generating Problem of
the Three Sections.

2. And very probably, the Greek geometers derived from
this and other kindred problems, by means of projections, &c.,
part of their ‘porismatic knowledge’ which is now known as
the ‘ anharmonic properties of pencils and divisions.’

3. In the investigations of the limits of the angles 6 right
in problems 1 and 2 of my paper in the Transactions for 1859,
it would be well to omit all the words from ‘ And it is more-
over evident,’ &c., and substitute the followmg :—And when
the circles iBC circumscribe the portion of circle ACH which
is not within or outside both the circles BA?, the lmitmng
values include between them all values of 6 right, and no
others, for which CO and BO are imaginary; but when the
circles iBC circumscribe the portion of circle ACH which is
within or outside both circles BiA, then the limiting values
have outside them all values of 6 right, and no others, for
which CO and BO are imaginary. At the limits the lies
CO are real and comcident.

THE TANGENCIES.

FIRST SOLUTION.

(See Plate.)

To describe a circle to touch three given circies A, B, C.

ANALYSIS.

Let D, E, F, be the respective pomts of contact of the
required circle with the circles A, B,C. Then DE passes
through O a known centre of similitude of circles A, B; and
DF passes through P, a known centre of similitude of the
circles A, C.

Now if D’ be any assumed poimt in circumference A, and
that E’, F’, are the dissimilar pomts in which OD’ and PD’
cut circumferences B and C; then PD’.PF’ — PD.PF, and
OD’.OL’ = OD.OE; and it follows that the circles D’E’F’,
DEF, have PO as radical axis.

Let d’, e', and f’, be the other pomts in which the known
circle D'E’F’ cuts the circles A, B, C. It is evident the

THE TANGENCIES,

First Solution. es CT

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 45

straight line D’d' and the common tangent to the circles A
and DEF at D, cut each other in PO the radical axis of the
circles DEF and D‘E’F’. And for like reasons it is also
evident that the intersection of E’e’ and the tangent to circle
B at E, and also the intersection of If’ and tangent to circle
C at F, are in PO.

But the intersections of the straight limes D’d’, He’, and
If’ with PO are known; .’. the tangents from these points to
the respective circles A, B, C, are known; hence, the poimts
of contact D, E, F, being known, the circle DEF is known.
Or, having found either point of contact the others
can be easily determined. ‘Thus for mstance when D is
found, then and F are the dissimilar pomts m which OD
and PD cut the circles B and C.

COMPOSITION.

Find O a centre of similitude of circles A and B; find Pa
centre of similitude of circles A and C; through D’ any
assumed point in circumference of circle A, draw OD’ and
PD’ to cut the circumferences of B and C in the points Ii’ and
¥’ dissimilar to D’ on circumference A; describe the circle
D’E'F’ and draw D‘d’, ii’e’, If’, its respective chords of inter-
section with the circles A, B, C, to cut the straight lime PO
in a, 6, c.; draw aD tangent to the circle A; draw OD and
PD to cut the circles B and C m the poimts H and F dissimilar
to point D on circle A; describe the circle DEF. Then will
_DEF be a required circle.

For OD.OE being = OD’.OE’, and PD.PF = PD’.PF’, it
follows that OP is the radical axis of the circles DEF and
D’E’t’, and therefore that aD is tangent to the circle DEF as
well as to circle A at the pomt D: and hence the circle DEF
touches circle A at D.

And since ODE passes through the peimt of contact D of
the circles DEF and A, and that O is a centre of similitude
of circles A and B, and that the points D and E on circles A
and B are dissimilar, .*. the circle DEF touches the circle B
in EK. And for similar reasons the circle DEF touches
circle C in F.

NOTES.

It is well to observe that we can find the poimts D and F
from E (E being the point of contact of a tangent from 6 to

46 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

circle B) by drawing OE to cut the circle A in the point D
dissimilar to the point E on circle B, and then PD to cut the
circle C in F the point dissimilar to D on circle A. And in
like manner we may find D and E from F the point of contact
of the tangent from e¢ to circle C.

Moreover, it is evident that we can find D even when the
circle A is infinitely great, for the tangents from a to circles
A and D’‘E’Y”’ are equal.

As there are two points O, and two poimts P, there are four
lines PO and .:. evidently four answerable points a; and
hence, as there are two tangents from each point a@ to the
circle A, it follows that there are in all eight answerable
circles DEF, real or imaginary in pairs.

Now DD, EE, and FF, are the polar chords of the circles
A, B, and C im respect to the points a, b,c im PO. Let Q be
the centre of similitude of the circles B and C through which
EF passes. Then OPQ is straight. And as DD must pass
through a’ the pole of OPQ in respect to circle A, and that
EE must pass through 0’ the pole of OPQ in respect to circle
B, and that FF must pass through c’ the pole of OPQ in
respect to circle C ; hence it follows, because ODE, PDF and
QFE are straight lmes, that DD, EE and FF must meet in
the radical centre R of the given circles A, B, C. And this
indicates the method of solution given by Gergonne.

It is also easy to see that DD passes through A’ the
extremity of the diameter AA’ of the known circle D'Ad';
and EE ev idently passes through B’ the extremity of the
diameter BB’ of circle BE’e’ ; and FF passes through C’ the
extremity of the diameter Gc of the circle CF 7’ ~—Hence
other methods of solution.

We may also remark, that as there are four points a, and
that the four polars of these points in respect to the cirele A
pass through the radical centre R of the three given circles,
it follows that the four points @ are situated in the polar of R
in respect to the circle A.

And, similarly, the four points 6 are on the polar of R in
respect to the circle B, and the four pomts ¢ are on the polar
of R in respect to circle C.

SECOND SOLUTION,

(See Plate.)

To describe a circle to touch three given circles A. B, C.

THE TANGENCIES

Solution.

Second

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 47

ANALYSIS.

Let O be the centre of the required circle, and let D, E, F
be its points of contact with the given circles A, B, C. Then
OAD, OBE, OCF are straight lines.

Since OD = OH, if OG bisects the angle OD right round
to OB, and that AG is perpendicular from A on OG, then is
the locus of G a known circle having its centre in the middle
point of AB, and such that its diameter MP intercepted by
AG and OG is parallel to AO. Similarly, smce OD = OF,
it follows that if OH bisects the angle OD right round to OF,
and that AH is perpendicular from A on OH, then will the
locus of H be a known circle having its centre equally distant
from A and C, and such that the diameter NQ intercepted
between AH and OH shall be parallel to AO.

And if we assume any auxiliary circle having A as centre,
and that AH.AN’ is equal to the square of its radius, then
the locus of N’ is a known circle N‘H’Q’ such that H’ being
the other point in which AH cuts it, the segments cut off by
the chords NH and N’‘H’ are similar. And, for like reasons,
ifon AG we take the point M’ such that AG.AM’ = the
square of the radius of the auxiliary circle, then will the locus
of M’ be a circie having with MGP the poimt A as a centre of
similitude, and such that, if G’ be the other pomt im which AG
cuts it, the segments cut off from it and circle PGM by the
chords MG and M’G’ are similar.

Let I be the point in which AO cuts M’N’.

Since the angles G and H are right, and that AG.AM’ =
AH.AN’ = square of radius of auxiliary circle, it follows that
M'N’ is perpendicular to AO, and that AO.AI is equal the
square of radius of auxiliary circle.

Again, the angle M’N’ right to A being equal to the angle
OA right to G = PM right to G, it is ... = P’M’ right to G’,
and .*. M’N’ touches circle M’G’P’ in M’. Similarly, since
angle N’A right to M’ = OH right to A = QH right to N,
it is .". equal Q’'H’ right to N’, and .:. M’N’ touches the circle
N’‘H'Q’ at N’.

Hence as M’N’ is a common tangent to two known
circles it is itself known, and .°. the centre O which is the pole
of M'N’ in respect to the auxiliary circle, is known, and .’.
also the circle DEF.

And since the radius of the circle PGM can be taken equal
to the half sum or half difference of the radii of circles A, B,
and that the radius of circle NHQ can be taken equal either

48 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

the half sum or half difference of the circles A, C, and that to
each of the resulting pairs of circles there are two answerable
tangents, .*. it is evident there are four pair of answerable
centres O, and .*. eight solutions to the question which are
real or unreal in pairs.

The composition may be easily made. And it may be as
well to remark that when we suppose the circle C infinitely
great, then will the circle NHQ also be infinitely great ;. and
its infinite circumference bisects all straight lines drawn from
the pomt A to the infinite circumference of circle C, &c., &e.

It may be right to observe that by introducing an auxiliary
curcle into the Fourth Solution in a similar manner to that
in this solution, we can make it intelligibly applicable to the
minor cases which now escape it ; but though this might be
an advantage as regards the greater generality obtamed, it
would not indicate such neat solutions to the leading cases.

THIRD SOLUTION.
(See Plate.)

To describe a circle to touch three given circles A, B, C.

ANALYSIS.

Let D, E and F be its pomts of contact with the given
circles A, B and C.

Then DE, DF and Ei pass through the respective points
O, P and Q, centres of siumilitude of the given circles which
are in one straight line.

Let Gand L be the other pomts in which DE cuts the
circles A and B; and let H and M be those in which DF
cuts the circles A and C; and let 8 be the pomt m which
GH cuts the axis of similitude OPQ. Then OS has to OQ
the known ratio which OG has to OH, and .°. the point 8 is
known.

Now the ratio of OG.DH to PH.DG, which is the same as
that of OS to PS, is known; and the ratio of PD.PH to
OD.OGisalso known ; .:. the ratio compounded of these ratios
or that of PD.DH to OD.DG is known: and hence as DH :
DG: : DE: DEH, it follows that the ratio of PD.DF to OD.DE
is known.

Or—which amounts to the same—the ratio of OH.FD to
PF.ED being the same as that of OQ to PQ is known; and
the ratio of PF.PD to OH.OD is (the same with that of

THE TANGENCIES
Third Solution.

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 49

PF.PM. rad B to OE.OL. rad C) known; hence the ratio of
PD.DF to OD.DE is known.

Let N be the point in which a tangent to the circle C at M
euts the straight hne ODE.

It is evident DE.DN = DF.DM, and that DE.DN has to
OD.DE a ratio compounded of the known ratios of PD.DF to
OD.DE, and of DM to PD.

Or—which amounts to the same—it is evident DE.DN has
to OD.DE a ratio compounded of the known ratios of OQ to
PQ, of PD.PF to OD.OE, and of DM to PD, which may
evidently be expressed as the ratio compounded of the ratios
of OQ to PQ and of PF.DM to OD.OE.

Hence it follows that the point N must be in the circum-
ference of a known circle NXX haying with circle A the pomt
O as centre of similitude.

Moreover, if K be the other pomt m which DE cuts circle
NXX we have the angle XK right to N = angle FE right to
D, and .*. = angle ND right to M; and hence MN is
tangent to the circle NXX at N.

Now MN being a common tangent to two known circles,
it is itself known ; and .*. the other pomt F in which the
straight line PM cuts tavele C is known, as also the poimt D
in which it cuts the circle A similarly to the pot M on circle
C; and the point E in which ON cuts the cir cle B similarly
to poimt N on circle NXX is known: and .-. the required
circle DEF is known.

COMPOSITION.

Find O, a centre of similitude of A and B; find P a centre
of similitude of A and ©; and Q a centre of similitude of B
and C in the line OP; and find the pomt S in OPQ such that
OS : OQ :: rad A : rad B.

Through O draw a straight lime OD‘E’ to cut the circles A
and B in dissimilar points D’ and E’; draw PD’ to cut circle
C in the point F’ which is dissimilar to D’ on circle A, and to
eut it again in M’; find the pomt N’ in OD’‘F’ such that
D‘N’.D’E’ shall have to O’D’.D’E’ the ratio compounded of the
ratios of D’M' to PD’ of OS to PS and of PD.PH to OD.OG,
—or which amounts to the same—such that D’N’.D’E’ shall
have to OD’.D’E’ a ratio compounded of the ratios of OQ to
PQ and of PE’.D'M’ to OD’.OE’; draw N’ I parallel D’A to
cut OAB in I; with I as centre and radius IN’ describe a
circle ; draw MN a common tangent to the circles C and I;

E

50 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

through the point of contact M, on circle C, draw PM to cut
the circle C again in F, and to cut the circle A in D similarly
to the pomt M on circle C; draw ON to cut circle Bm E
similarly to the point N on circle I; describe the circle DEF.
Then is DEF a required circle.

NOTES.

This method of solution holds intelligibly good in all cases
in which neither of the circles A or C is infinitely great.
When the circles A and B are injinitely smalls the centre of
similitude O may have any position whatever in the line AB,
as the ratio of their radii may be of any magnitude; and
similar remarks apply to the centre of similitude Q when the
circles B and C are infinitely smalls. By fixing the ratio of
these infinitely small circles, we fix the positions of the centres
of similitude ; and it is evident we may suppose one of them
infinitely small in respect to the other, so as to have the centre
of similitude comcident with this other in respect to finite
distances. And similar remarks apply as to the ratios of
infinitely great radii.

This solution furnishes three methods to the case in which
two of the given circles are finite and the third infinitely
small. And that one in which we have A the infinitely small
circle is in substance the same as what is given by Monsieur
Auguste Cauchy. ;

We are furnished with two methods for the case in which
two of the circles are infinitely smalls, and the third finite :—
one of which (when A and B are the infinitely smalls), 1s in
substance the same as what is given by Pappus as the solution
to this case from the Work of Apollonius.

However, here as elsewhere, when I speak of a general
solution being inapplicable to any case or cases, it is to be
considered inapplicable only in a graphical point of view,
for a general solution holds mentally good in all cases, even
when quantities may be infinitely great or small; and the
mind’s conviction in such cases is established by its knowledge
concerning properties of finite quantities and its own power
of legitimately applying the principle of ‘ continutty’ derived,
in degree, from this knowledge.

It is also to be observed that owing to our imperfect know-
ledge of infinitesimal geometry, or to the nature even of this
geometry, it may often happen that we cannot intelligibly
arrive at some necessary theorem from one point of view, so

" es aie bi
MS isis). Hp
POP vats.” < scribe

asad bejectyy)

THE TANGENCIES
Fourth Solftion

ao
CK)

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 51

as to employ the steps in a graphic construction; and that,
for this reason, it will be compulsory to vary the steps, as is
well exemplified in the 3rd solution to the Tangencies.

FOURTH SOLUTION.

(See Plate.)
To describe a circle to touch three given circles A, B, C.

ANALYSIS.

Let O be the centre of the required circle, and let D, E, F
be its points of contact with the given circles A, B, C.

In OB take OH = OA, and then EH is = DA; and it is
evident the circle having B as centre and BH as radius is
known. Moreover, if M be the other point in which AH
cuts this circle, and K that in which a tangent to it at M cuts
AO, then, since BM and AO are parallels, it follows that MK
is perpendicular to AO. It is also evident that AO.AK = }
AH.AM, and is .*. of known magnitude.

Similarly, if in OC we take OI = OA, and that from the
other point P in which AI cuts the known circle having C as
center and CI as radius, we draw a tangent to cut AO in L,
then will this tangent be perpendicular to AO, and will
AO.AL = 3 the known magnitude AI.AP.

Now if N be the point in which MK cuts AIP, then as
AN.AI has to AP.AT the same ratio which AN has to AP or
which AK has to AL or which AK.AO has to AL.AO, it
follows that AN.AI = twice AK.AO = AM.AH, and .:. that
the locus of N is a known circle G having with circle C the
point A as centre of similitude.

And since PL is tangent to C at P, it is evident KN is
tangent to circle G at N; .*., smce MKN is common tangent
to the two known circles BM and GN, it isitself known; and
AK perpendicular to it is known, as also the point O such
that AO.AK = 4 the known magnitude AH.AM. Hence
the circle DEF is known.

COMPOSITION.

Draw any radius BH’ of the given circle B; draw any
radius CE’ of the given circle C; in BE’ and CF’ make E’H’
and FI’ each equal to the radius of the given circle A; with
B and C as centres and BN’ and Cl’ as radii deseribe circles ;

E 2

52 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

draw AH’ and AI’ to cut these circles again in M’ and P’;
find N’ in AI’ such that AN’.AI’ = AH’.AM’; draw N’G
parallel P’C to cut AC in G; with G as centre and GN’ as
radius describe a ee ; then, according as — has hke or
unlike sign with £8, draw MN a common tangent direct or
inverse to the circles BM’ and GN’; draw AK perpendicular
to MN and in it find the pomt O such that AO.AK =}
AH.AM (this can evidently be done by producing AK until
KA’ = AK; and then describing the circle A’M’H’ to cut
AK again in O.)
The point O is a centre of a required circle, &c.

NOTES.

Here, too, as in the last solution, it may be remarked that
the general solution gives more than one method when applied
to many of the particular cases.

From this solution also we arrive at that given by Cauchy
for two cércles and a point (by supposing the circle A infinitely
small), and we arrive at that of Pappus given in Leslie’s
Geometrical Analysis for the case of two poimts and a circle
(by supposing the circles A and C infinitely small).

Moreover, we see what has not been remarked by the
authors of these solutions to the particular cases, viz. :—that
the perpendicular from the poimt A on -the tangent MN
passes through the centre O of the required circle.

FIFTH SOLUTION.

To describe a circle to touch three given circles A, B, and

ANALYSIS.

Let D, E, F, be the points of contact of the required circle
with A, B, and C.

Now (as will appear from some of the porismatic develop-
ments), if DN be a perpendicular from D on the radical
axis of the circles A and C, and that DM isa perpendicular on
the radical axis of the circles A and B, then will DN.AC have
to DM.AB one of the four ratios comprehended in that which
(AC)?— (rad A + rad C)? has to AB*—(rad A + rad B)?.

Hence it is evident DN has to DM a known ratio; and .°.
as the radical axes RN and RM are known; it follows that

' THE TANGENCIES
Fifth Solution ,

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Rie

fe
E eveett
iat
vieltncina t fs iP ha. Ca 5 A
ghetes! | paene PERE DED Hts RR Ee si He ide
: ; ae FERC aU ris wey eee gl. |
" SV
, ne pity
ony y rt
y 3
i a 4 3 bh
+ m ah
Leoval tn: tae
m i : ae whe /
Y Tab. ba rad ek
5
‘ re wari?

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 53

the straight line RD is known in position; and .’. the point
D where it cuts circle A is known.

Similarly, by drawing perpendiculars from E on the radical
axis RM and on the radical axis to the circles B and C, it can
be shown that RE through R is known in position, and .*. E
is known.

And in like manner we can find the point F on circle C.
Or the circle DEF can be easily found from any of the points
D, E, F, of contact, since the lines joining these points pass
through known centres of similitude, &c.

The composition may be easily made.

NOTES.

The ratio which DN has to DM, is as has been indicated,
pn AB {(AC2—Gad A F rad Cp}
DM ~~ AC{(AB2—(rad A F rad B”}
And, in order to show that this holds good for all values of
the radii C and B from zero to infinity inclusive, let ¢ and 4
be the points in which AC and AB cut the circles C and B,
and let a be that in which either of these lines cuts circle A.
We have AC = Ac + cC, rad A = Aa, rad C= Ce, rad
B = Bd; and .:. we can put the ratio under the form
DN AB{(Ac’ 42 Ac.cO—Aa” +2 Aa.cC }

DM “ac {(Av’ +2.A0,0B—Aa + 2 Aa.bB)}
which evidently holds good for all values of the radii B and C.

The above method of solution requires one circle (as A) to
be finite. When circles C and B are infinitely smalls
DN AB Act—Aaz_ AB AC?—Aa2
DM~ AC Ab2-Aa— AC AB—Aa@
When circles C and B are infinitely greats
DN A°+ Aa
DM Ab+Aa
When ¢ is infinitely great and 6 = zero
DN at 2.AB (Ac + Aa)
DM “AB,—Aai_
When c = zero, and 6 infinitely great
pn _ACAw
DM 2.AC(Ab+ Aa)

From Gergonne’s solution, and the theorem on which the
above solution depends, it is evident we have expressions for

54 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

the ratios of the perpendiculars from the poles of the axes of
similitude on the radical axes, &c., &c.

SIXTH SOLUTION.
(See Plate.)
To describe a circle to touch three given circles A, B and C.

ANALYSIS.

Let D, E, and F be the points of contact of the required
circle with the three given circles A, B, and C.

Then DE, DF and EF pass through O, P and Q centres of
similitude of the given circles; and OPQ is an axis of
similitude.

Let G and H be the other points in which ED and FD cut
the circle A, and S that in which HG (which is parallel EFQ)
cuts POQ.

Then OS has to OQ the known ratio which OG has to OH,
and which radius A has to radius B, and .. 8 is a known
point.

Now the ratio OG.DH to PH.DG, being the same with
that of OS to PS, is known; and the ratio of PD.PH to
to OD.OG is also known; .°. the ratio compounded of these
ratios, or that of PD.DH to OD.DG is known: or—which
amounts to the same—the ratio of OE.FD to PF.ED bemg
the same with that of OQ to PQ is known; and the ratio of
PF.PD to OE.OD is known; and .:. the ratio compounded
of these ratios, or that of PD.DF to OD.DE is known; and
.. as DF: DE :: DH : DG, it follows that the ratio of
PD.DH to OD.DG is known.

Let I be the other poimt in which a circle through P, H
and G would cut OGD. Then PD.DH = ID.DG; and ...
ID has to OD the known ratio which PD.DH has to OD.DG,
and the point I must be in the circumference of a known
circle ILL, having with circle A the pomt O as a centre of
similitude. Moreover, if K be the other pomt in which DO
cuts this circle, then as the angle LK right to lis = HG
right to D, itis = ID right to P; and.:. PI is a tangent to
the circle IKL at I.

Now PI is known, and .:. also IO and the point D on circle
A similar to I on circle ILK, as also the point E on B dis-
similar to D on A; and the pomt F on circle C in which PD

THE TANGENGIES
Sixth Solution

gil
een

ry

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. ee

cuts it dissimilarly to D on circle A is known. Hence the
circle DEF is known.

COMPOSITION,

Find O a centre of similitude of the circles A and B; find
P a centre of similitude of the circles A and C; find Q the
centre of similitude of the circles B and C which is in line
with O and P; and find the point S in POQ such that PQ :
PS =z: rad C : rad A.

Take any point D’ on the circumference of circle A, and
draw OD’ and PD’ to cut the circles B and C in the pomts
FE’ and F’ dissimilar to D’ on circle A; then on OD’E’ find
the point I’ such that I'D’ shall have to OD’ the ratio com-
pounded of the ratios of OS to PS, and of PD.PH to OD.OG:
or—which is the same—find I’ such that I'D’ shall have to
OD’ the ratio compounded of the ratios of OQ to PQ and of
PF.PD to OH.OD.

Draw I’M parallel to AD’ to cut AO in M; from M as
centre and with MI’ as radius describe a circle, to which draw
PI a tangent; draw IO to cut circle A in D similarly to I on
circle M, and to cut circle B in E dissimilarly to D on A;
draw PD to cut circle C in F dissimilarly to circle A in D;
describe the circle DEF, Then is DEF a required circle.

NOTES.

This solution holds for all the cases in which the circle A
is finite, &c. '

If we were to draw DR tangent to the circle A at D to cut
PO in R; then as DR is parallel to PI, and that RP has to
RO the known ratio which ID has to OD, it follows that the
point R on PO is known; and .°. the tangent RD to circle A
is known; and hence, &c.—another method of solution.

Or we might solve the problem in a similar manner to that
of the third solution from the knowledge that DF.DM has to
DE.DL the known ratio of AC? —(rad AF rad C)? to AB’—
(rad A = rad B)? where M and Lare the other points in which
PD and OD cut the circles C and B.

SEVENTH SOLUTION.

(See Plate.)

To describe a circle to touch three given circles A, B, C,

56 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

ANALYSIS.

Let O be the centre of the required circle, and D, H, F
the points in which it touches the given circles A, B, C.

Then ED passes through P a centre of similitude of the
circles B and A; and FD passes through Q a centre of simili-
tude of the circles C and A.

And since the rectangles PD.PE, QD.QF are of known
magnitudes, and that they are respectively equal to PO? -—
OD? and QO?—OD?, .:. PO?—QO? 1s of known magnitude and
sign, and the locus of O is a known straight line OI perpen-
dicular to PQ, and such that PI? — QI? = PO? — QO’.

_ Now if in OB we have OM = OC, then EM = the radius
of circle B; and BM is of known magnitude; and the circle
having B as centre and BM as radius is known.

Let N be the other point in which OM cuts this last men-
tioned circle; and suppose the circle CHL passing through
the point C and having with the circle MN the line IO as
radical axis.

Then L being the other point in which OC cuts the circle
CLH, we have OC.OL = OM.ON;; hence as OC = OM, it
follows that CL is equal the diameter MN, and .-. of known
magnitude. But the circle CHL is known; .«. CL is known
in position, and hence the point O in which it cuts IO, and
therefore the circle DEF is known.

COMPOSITION.

Find P a centre of similitude of the given circles A and B;
find Q a centre of similitude of the given circles A and C;
draw a straight line PD’E’ cutting circles A, B, in dissimilar
points D’ and E’; draw astraight line Qd/’ cutting the given
circles A, C, in dissimilar points d’ and f'; find the point I in
the line PQ such that PI? — QI? = PD’.PH’ — Qd'.Q/’, and
through I draw a straight line IR perpendicular to PQ: draw
any radius Be’ of the circle B, and from e’ in the proper
direction on e’B make e’m’ = the radius of circle C;{ with B
as centre and Bm’ as radius describe a circle, and produce
e'm' to cut it in n’; through the pomt C describe the circle
CHL which with circle Bm’n' has IR as radical axis, and in
it inflect the chord CL = to the diameter m‘n', and let O be
the point of intersection of CL with IR: then will O bea
centre of a required circle. —

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THE TANGENCIES
Eighth Solution.

and Loci of Apollonius, §c. 57

NOTES.

Since there are two points P and two points Q, there are
four lines IR, and as there are four corresponding circles CL
and two chords CL in each, it is obvious there are eight
answerable circles O real or unreal, in pairs, according as the
circles LCM are greater and less than the corresponding
circles m’n’.

It is evident that when the circles A and C are infinitely
small, and B finite, then may the point Q have any position
whatever in the straight line through A and B (because the
infinitely small circles may have any ratio whatever just
according as we suppose two circles to have any finite constant
ratio during their diminution to the infinitely small state.)

This solution does not readily apply to the case in which
two of the given circles are supposed infinitely great, or
replaced by straight lines ; but the following is an analysis of
a solution which will embrace all the cases in which we sup-
pose the circle A of finite magnitude.

Since the rectangles PD.PE and QD.QF are known in
signs and magnitudes, it follows (from one of a class of po-
risms to be included in subsequent developments) that we
know the two points o’, o', of real or imaginary intersection
of all circles having their centres in PQ and respective
radii equal the tangents from them to circle DEF. And
since the circle A and straight lme PQ are known, we
know the two points a’, a’, of real or imaginary intersection
of all circles having their centres in PQ and respective radii
equal to the tangents from them to circle A. And it is
evident we know the circle through the four points o’o’a’a’,
and that its centre R is in PQ; moreover it is evident the cir-
cumference of this circle R passes through D; and .-. D on
circle A is known, and hence AD and the point O in which it
cuts the straight line through o’o’; and .:. the circle DEF
is known

EIGHTH SOLUTION.

(See Plate.)
To describe a circle to touch three given circles A, B, C.

ANALYSIS.

Let O be the required centre, and let D, E, and F be the
points of contact with the given circles A, B, and C.

58 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

Since the rectangle under the half sum and half difference
of the sides of a triangle is equal to the rectangle under the
half sum and half difference of the segments of the base made
by a perpendicular from the vertex; .*. it is evident, that if
OP be perpendicular to AB, and M be middle poimt of AB,
and that in OB we have Oe = OA, and 4 the middle of eB,
then will 06.B6 = AM.MP;; and hence Od has to PM the
same known ratio which AM has to OB.

Now if in AB we find the pomt G such that eb is to GM
in the known ratio of Ob to PM, then will Oe or its equal
AO have to PG the same known ratio.

For like reasons it is evident that if OQ be perpendicular
to AC, and N the middle poimt of AC, and that we assume
Of in OC and = to OA, and that ¢ is middle of FSC, and that
we find H in AC such that fe shall have to HN the known
ratio of AN to Cc, then will AO have to QH this same known
ratio.

Now the points G and H are known, and the ratio of PG
to QH is known (because AO has known ratios to PG and
QH): hence the pomt I in which the circle AHG cuts the
circle QAP is known; and since the angles P and Q are right,
it follows that the straight line IO perpendicular to AI is
known, as also the pomt Rin which it again cuts the circle
AGH

Again, GR bemg perpendicular to AG, it is parallel to PO;
and PG has to OR a known ratio; therefore AO has to OR
a known ratio.

If 8 be the pomt in which AO again cuts the circle AGH,
it follows, from similar triangles, that AI has to RS the
known ratio which AO has to OR, and .*. the chord RS is of
known magnitude, and .:. also it is known in position; and
AS is known, and also the point O where it cuts IR, and .-.
the required circle is known.

COMPOSITION.

Through the centres B and C draw BH’ and CF’ any two
radii of the circles B and C; from E’ in either direction on
EB make E’e’ = radius of circle A; frem F’ in either direc-
tion on F’C make F’f’ = radius of circle A; bisect e’B in @’,
Cf inc’, AB in M, and AC in N; find Gin AB such that
e'b' : GM :: AM: ed’; and in AC find the pomt H such
that fic’ : HN :: AN : fc’; assume any straight line x and
find lines y and z such thatw : y :: AM: eb’, anda: z

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THE TANGENCIES
Ninth Solution

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 59

:: AN :: fe’; on AB and AC make Gp and Hg equals to
and z, and describe the circles AGH, Apg; through the point
of intersection I of these two circles draw IR perpendicular
to AI to cut the circle AGH again in R; find the point 2 in
IR so that AI : Ti :: AM : e’d’, and draw i’ parallel to AG
to cut AI in #’; with R as centre and radius equal 2’ describe
a circle, and from either point S in which it cuts the circle
AGH draw AS to cut IR in O.
Then will O be the centre of a required circle.

NOTES.

This method of solution holds good in all cases in which
circle A is not supposed infinite, or—which amounts to the
same thing—it holds good in all cases but those in which we
suppose the three given circles replaced by straight lines.

If we suppose circle C infinite, then it is evident AC is
parallel to OC and perpendicular to tangible portion of the
infinite circumference; moreover since the ratio of AN to fe
is then one of equality, so will that of AO to QH be one of
equality, and ... QH will be = Of, and the pomt H im the
perpendicular from A on the known portion of the infinite
circumference is known as it is at a distance = radius of
circle A therefrom.

It may also be observed that the line [OR is identical with
the line IOR of the seventh solution.

NINTH SOLUTION.

(See Plate.)
To describe a circle to touch three given circles A, B, C.

ANALYSIS.

Let O be the centre of the required circle, and let D, E, F
be its poimts of contact with the given circles A, B, C.

If in OA we suppose OM taken equal OB and so that OB
and OM have like directions in respect to the directions OK
and OD, then DM = KB, and it is evident AM is of known
magnitude.

And since OB is equal OM and that 2.0A.0OM = OA? +
OM? — AM?.

*, 2.0A.0M = OA?* + OB? — AM? both in sign and
magnitude. But if G be the point in which the circle having

60 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

BA as diameter cuts AO, we have 2.0A.GO = — OA? —
OB? + AB?. And from these two we get, by adding equal
quantities, the relation 20A.GM = AB? — AM’.

Similarly if in OA we suppose ON equal to OC and the
like direction in respect to direction OD which the direction
OC has to OF, then will DN = FC, and will AN be of known
magnitude. And it is evident that if H be the pomt in which
the circle having CA as diameter cuts AO, we have in like
manner the relation 20A.HN = CA? —AN?.

But the ratio of the known quantities AB? — AM? and CA?
—AN? is known: .°. it follows that the ratio of GM to HN
which is the same with it is known.

Now if in MN we suppose NL so taken that MA has to
NL the known ratio which GM has to HN; then GA has to
HL the same ratio.

Hence if in AO we suppose KA = HL and in like
direction to it, then GA has to KA a known ratio, and .-.
the point K must be in the circumference of a known circle
AKP passing through A and having its diameter AQ in AB.

Again since KA = Hh, we have KH = the known
magnitude AL. And the angles CHK, QKH, beimg right,
it follows that QT the perpendicular from Q on CH is equal
to KH, and that CT is tangent to the circle having Q as
centre and QT as radius; but this circle is known; there-
fore the tangent CT is known, as also the other pomt H in
which it cuts the circle on AC as diameter; and therefore
AHO is known in position.

And, since AHO is known in position, the point N is
known; and ... as OC = ON, the point O is known, and
hence the circle DEF.

COMPOSITION,

Through the centre A draw any radius AD’; in D’A take
D'M’ = radius B, and D’N’ = radius C; im M’'N’A find the
point L’ such that M’A shall have to N’L_ the ratio which
AB? —AM” has to CA? — AN” (taking signs into account) ;
in AB take AQ so that AB: AQ:: M’A: N’L (taking
note of signs) ; on AC and AQ as diameters describe circles ;
with Q as centre and a radius equal to AL’ describe a circle,
and draw CT a tangent to it from C ; through the other point
H in which CT cuts the circle on AC as diameter, draw the
straight lime AH to cut the circle on AQ as diameter in K ;
make HL = KA (and in the same direction) ; make in the

Rt
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TS Wt Bea ae

ve

THE TANGENCIES
APOLLONIUS ORIGINAL SOLUTION.

and Loci of Apollonius, §c. 61

same line AN = AN’ so that 44 and AX’ have like signs;
find O in Ali so that OC = ON; then from the point O as
centre and the point D, when NO cuts circle A (so that ND
= N’D’) as distance, describe a circle : this circle will be as
required.

NOTES.

This method of solution is not intelligibly applicable to
those states of the data in which any of the given circles is
supposed infinitely great, or replaced by a straight line; but
for the other cases it is thoroughly complete and deserves
attention.

Indeed, I may remark that there are many very good solu-
tions applying only to the cases in which none of the given
circles A, B, C, is infinite, or when two are infinite. Yet it
must not be lost mind of, by those who would succeed, that
the solutions to general questions are often arrived at from
considering them under some particular states of the data, and
divining what modifications are necessary so as to make the
solutions which may be arrived at applicable to the more
general cases.

It may also be remarked that a theorem evolved in the
above solution is directly applicable in a solution to the prin-
cipal case of the ‘ Jnclinations’ of Apollonius.

APOLLONIUS’ ORIGINAL SOLUTION.
. (See Plate.)
To describe a circle to touch three given circles A, B, and
C.

ANALYSIS.

Let D, E, and F be the points of contact of the required
circle with the given circles A, B, and C.

Then, DE passes through O a centre of similitude of the
circles A and B; DF passes through P a centre of similitude
of the circles A and C; and EF passes through Q a centre of
similitude of the circles B and C; and the points O, P, and
Q are in a straight line.

Let G and H be the other points in which DE and DF cut
the circle A.

Through H draw a parallel to OPQ; and through the other
point I in which it cuts the circle A, draw DI to cut OPQ
in M.

62 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

Since HI and HG are parallel to FEQ and QPO, the angle
QO right to E = angle HI right to G and is ... = angle DI
right to G or DM right to O or H; and .-. a circle can pass
through MDEQ.

But O being a centre of similitude to the circles A and B,
the magnitude of OD.OE is known; and .:. since OM.OQ =
OD.OE, the point M is known.

Let N be the poimt in which a tangent to circle A at H
cuts POQ.

The angle NH right to Pis = HN right tol and... =
DH or DP right tol or M. Hence acirele can pass through
DH, M, and N. Andsince PM.PN is = the known magni-
tude PH.PD, it follows that the pomt N is known.

Now N bemg a known point, the tangent NH to circle A
is known; and the pomt F im which PH cuts the circle C
similarly to H on circle A is known; as also the other poimt
D in which it cuts circle A. And the pomt E on circle B, in
in which OD cuts it dissimilarly to D on circle A, is known:
and hence the circle DEF is known.

Or, we might determine D by drawing a tangent at D to
cut OPQ, &c., because circle MDP touches A at D.

COMPOSITION.

Find O a centre of similitude of the circles A and B; find
P a centre of similitude of the circles A and C; and find @
the centre of similitude of the circles B and C which is in line
with O and P.

Through O draw a straight line to cut the circles A and B
in dissimilar pots, D’ and EH’; describe the circle QH'D’;
through P draw a line to cut the circle A in pomts H’, D’;
through H’, D’, and the other pomt M in which the circle
QE'D’ cuts the line OPQ, describe a circle; through the
other point N, in which the circle D'H’M cuts the lime QPO,
draw NH atangent to the circle A; draw PH to cut the circle
A again in D, and to cut the circle C in F dissimilar to D on
A; draw OD to cut circle B in E dissimilar to D oncirele A;
describe the circle DEF.

Then is DEF a required circle.

NOTES.

This method of solution is intelligibly applicable im a direct
manner only when the circle A is finite, and C neither an

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 63

infinitely great circle, nor infinitely great in respect to the
circle B. The reason of such restriction arises from the
peculiar nature of infinitesimal geometry causing the indica-
ted operations to be graphically impracticable though men-
tally possible.

However as regards the five principal cases of the problem;
viz., when the circles A, B, C are finite—when A and B are
finite and C infinitely small—when A is finite and B and C
infinitely small—when A and C are finite and B infinitely
great—and when A is finite, C infinitely small and B infin-
itely great, this solution is remarkably elegant, and depends
on very simple well known elementary truths.

That it is in substance the same as the one given by Apollo-
nius, may be easily gathered from Pappus’ commentaries on
the writings of the celebrated Greek geometers.

He observed that the Apollonian solution to the Tangen-
cies was of such a uature as to indicate a method of inseribing
a triangle in a given circle, whose sides would pass through
three given points in a straight lime. And then, evidently,
in order to prepare for a construction to the general problem
of inscribing, in a given circle, a polygon, whose sides should
pass through given points, he gives the indicated method of
solution to the particular case just mentioned, both when the
three fixed points are at finite distances from each other, and
when one of them is at an infinite distance.

Now, in the solution just given in the text, nothing would
be more apt to suggest itself than the fact that GH, a parallel
to FEQ, cuts OPQ in a point §, such that OS has to OQ the
known ratio which OG has to OF, or which rad. A has to
rad. B; and that we could .:. solve the problem :—“ Being
given three points O, P, 8, ina straight line; to inscribe a
triangle DGH m a given circle so that its sides will pass
through these points.” |

And the method which the present solution indicates is
exactly the same as is given in Pappus’ Mathematical Collec-
tions, as well when the three points are at finite distances as
when one of them is at an infinite distance.

These coincidences in peculiarities are, I consider, sufficient
to justify me in believing that I have reproduced the solution
of the celebrated Greek geometer. And I feel the better
pleased at this as it clears up along disputed point concerning
the claims of the rival’ ‘restorations’ given by Vieta and
Simson to the case of the problem in which one of the cireles
as C is infinitely small. »

64 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

It will be seen that Vieta’s solution, in the most improved
form, is the same as that of Apollonius.

And here, before closmg my notes on this celebrated
problem, I may observe that Dr. Robert Simson, like many
others, certainly misunderstood the object of propositions
116, 117 and 118 of Book VII. of Pappus’ Mathematical
Collections ; and that through this he was led to imagine
he restored or reproduced the proposition to which they
were intended as subsidiary.

However, as Dr. Simson’s remarks are interesting in a
historical point, I will give them as translated from the
Appendix to his Opera Reliqua, by Professor Davies. They
are as follows :—

‘‘In the Seventh Book of the Mathematical Collections of
Pappus Alexandrinus (every admirer of the ancient geome-
trical analysis ought to rejoice that this work has been
preserved to our times), among the lemmas which that most
eminent writer has handed down, there exists a problem for
one of the tangencies of Apollonius, namely, m Prob. 117,
B. VII; in which it is required, when a circle being given by
position and three points in a straight line, to inflect from two
of the points two lines meeting in the circumference, so as to
make the two points in which they intersect the circle and
the third given poimt in the same straight line. It is not
difficult to investigate the rest of the lemmas which are sub-
sidiary to the problems on the tangencies ; and some of these
Vieta has used in his Apollonius Gallus ; but to what problem
the aforesaid lemma could be subsidiary, neither Vieta nor
any other geometer has attempted to conjecture.

“‘ Often, indeed, have I resolved the subject in my mind,
but I have never succeeded in arriving at any satisfactory
conclusion, except that the lemma, by no uncertain marks,
appeared to be necessary for the following problem :—Two
circles and a pot being given by position, it is required to
describe a third circle which shall touch the given circles and
pass through the given pomt. In what manner, however,
the lemma might be subsidiary to this problem I did by no
means perceive. I have directed my attention to the solu-
tions of Vieta and others, hoping that by chance I might hit
upon the analysis requiring this lemma, but in vain; until
this day, after various trials, I discovered the true analysis of
Apollonius, to which, indeed, both this Prob. 117 of Pappus,
as well as Props. 116 and 118 are manifestly subsidiary.—
February 9, 1734.”

and Loci of Apollonius, &e. 65

How such an able geometer could look so long in vain for
a solution to the tangencies which might implicate the 117th
proposition of Pappus’ 7th Book, I am at a loss to understand ;
though it evidently accounts for his implied opinion that the
general problem of the three circles was originally referred to
the particular case of two circles and a point.

Indeed, J may mention that the solution which I give
as that of Apollonius was the first one which suggested itself
to me for the general question of the three circles; though
not exactly in the form in which I now present it: for after
arriving at the point in the analysis in which M is shown to
be found, I proceeded as follows :—

Since HI is parallel to PM, a circle through M, P and D
touches the circle A im D; and .-., sce P and M are known,
this touching circle MDP is known; and hence ODE, PDF,
and circle DEF are known.

I may further note, that we may give another method of
solution implicating Pappus’ lemma, by supposing K the point
in which DK parallel to OPQ cuts circle DEF, and V that in
which FK cuts OPQ.

For as the angle FE right to K = DE right to K, it is
OE right to V and ... QV.QO being = QE.QF, the point V
is known.

And if T be the point in which the tangent at D cuts OPQ;
then since the angle FK right to D = DK right to T, it is—
TP right to D, and .:., PT.PV being = PD.PF, the point T is
known. Hence the tangent TD to circle A is known, and .-.
ODE, PDF and circle DEF are known.

It is evident this method holds graphically good only when
A is finite and C neither infinitely small, nor infinitely small
in respect to the circle B. It applies to the case in which A
is finite and B and C infinitely greats; but does not to that
in which A is finite and B and C infinitely smalls.

Similar solutions to the two just indicated are obvious from
the ‘ Involution’?’ Theory as unfolded in the Géométrie
Supérieure :—

1. Let D, E, F be the poimts of contact with the given
circles, and OPQ the known centres of similitude, in a
straight line, through which DE, DF and EF pass. If G and
H be the other points in which DE and DF cut the circle A,
then GH is parallel to EF, and OG : OE :: rad A : rad B;
and hence § the point in which GH cuts OQ is known.

Now, if we suppose T the point in which atangent to the

circle A at D cuts OQ; then, since we may regard GHDD as
F

66 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

an inscribed quadrilateral mm circle A having the side DD
infinitely small, it follows that the straight line OPST is cut
in “involution” by the circle A and the pairs of opposite sides
of the quadrilateral; but the circle A is known, as also the
poimts O, P and 8; therefore the pomt T can be found as
follows (see Chasles’ Géométrie Supérieure, page 150) :—
Assume any point U on the circumference A, and describe
the circle OPU; through U, 8, and the other pomt V in
which the circles A and OPU intersect, describe a circle
UVS: then will this circle UVS give the poit T in its other
intersection with OPS. Hence we know the tangent TD to
circle A, &c.

2. We can find the tangent NH im a similar manner.
Thus :—Through W any point in the circumference A
describe the circle PWS; through O, W, and the pomt X in
which this circle cuts the circle A describe a circle: then will
this circle give N in its other intersection with the line SPO.
Hence the tangent NH, &c. .

3. Or, since the required circle DEF evidently cuts OPQ in
known points, real or imaginary, it is obvious that if through
any point D’ we draw two straight lines OD’ and PD’, and on
them take D’E’ and D’F’ such that OD’.OE’ = OD.OE, and
PD’.PF’ = PD.PF, then will the circles D’E’F’ and DEF
have OPQ as radical axis; and we can find the tangent DT
as follows :—Describe the circle OPD’, and through Q, D’,
and the other point K of intersection of the circles OPD’ and
D’E’¥’ describe a circle: then will the other pomt im which
the circle D'KQ cuts OPQ be the required pomt T from
which to draw the tangent TD to the circle A.

Montucla gives a very curious history of this problem. He
says:—“ Vieta, in a dispute with Adrian Romanus, proposed
this problem. The solution given by Romanus, though
obvious, was very indifferent, viz., by determining the centre
of the required circle by the point of intersection of two
hyperbolas. Vieta solved it very elegantly in his Apollonius
Gallus, printed at Paris in 1600: his solution is the same as
that given in Newton’s Universal Arithmetic. Another solu-
tion may be seen in Lemma 16, Book I., of the Principia
(this question being there necessary for some determinations
in Physical Astronomy), where Newton, by a remarkable
dexterity, reduced the two higher loci of Romanus to the
intersection of two straight lines. Moreover, Descartes
attempted to solve this problem by algebraic analysis, but
without success; for, of the two solutions which he derived

and Lovi of Apollonius, &c. 67

from thence, he himself acknowledges that one furnished him
with so complicated an expression, that he would not under-
take to construct it im a month; while the other, though
somewhat less complicated, was not so very simple as to
encourage him to set about the construction of it. Lastly,
the Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia, who it is well known
honored Descartes with her correspondence, deigned to com-
municate a solution to this philosopher; but, as it is deduced
from the algebraic calculus, it labours under the same incon-
veniences as that of Descartes.”

Euler, Fuss, T. Simpson, and other eminent analysts have
given algebraic solutions, though not at all commensurate
with the requirements of the problem. T. Simpson has also
given a geometrical solution in the appendix to his Elements
of Geometry, which, in reality, does not differ in principle
from Newton’s in the Principia.

These solutions, like those of Euler, are very imperfect,
though complete ones of a similar nature, and much more
simple, can be easily formed.

The late John Mulcahy, L.L.D., professor, Queen’s College,
Galway, after giving Gaulthier’s solution as improved by Ger-
gonne, in article 68 of his Principles of Modern Geometry,
again returns to the subject in article 95, and deduces Gaul-
thier’s original method depending on the circle which cuts
the three given ones orthogonally: this of course labours
under the disadvantage of being applicable when the radical
centre is within the three given circles.

Those who are acquainted with the Principles of Modern
Geometry, or the writings of the late Professor Davies, of the
Royal Military Academy, will at once see that all my methods
are applicable when, instead of three circles in a plane, there is
given three circles on the surface of a sphere. 'The only differ-
ence being that straight lines, whether im data or solution,
will be represented by great circles of the sphere.

My solutions have also analogous ones answering to the
following celebrated problem, which was proposed by Des-
cartes to Fermat:—‘“‘ Suppose four things, A, B, C, D, to be
given in position, consisting of points, planes, and spheres,
which may be taken of any one of these kinds exclusively, or of
any two of the kinds, or of all of the three kinds ; it is required
to describe a sphere which shall pass through each of the given
points, and touch the given planes or spheres.”

All we have to do is (as in considermg the Apollonian
problem) to form the solution for the general case im which

F2

68 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

the data is four spheres, and then make the modifications
necessary when we suppose one or any number of the spheres
to become infinitely small or infinitely great, or—in other
words—when we suppose one, two, three, or all of the
spheres to be replaced by points or planes.

The analysis similar to my first solution is evidently as
follows :—

ANALYSIS.

Let a, b,c, d be the respective poimts of contact of the
required sphere with the given spheres A, B, C, D.

Then the straight lines ad, ac, ad, pass respectively through
O, P, Q, known vertices of similitude to the pairs of spheres
AB, AC, AD.

Now, if a’ be any point in the surface A, and that 0’, c’, d,
are the respective points in the surfaces of B, C, D, made by
the straight lines @‘O, a’P, a'Q which are dissimilar to that
of a’ on the surface of A, it is evident Oa'.0b' = Oa.08,
Pa’.Pc’ = Pa.Pe, and Qa’.Qd' = Qa.Qd, and therefore that
the spheres a’‘b‘c'd’, abcd, have the plane OPQ as radical

lane.
: This being borne in mind, it is evident that the tangent
plane to any of the given spheres at the poimt of contact will
cut the plane of section of this sphere and the sphere a‘b'c'd'
in a straight line situated in the plane OPQ.

But as we may assume the point a’ anywhere in the surface
of A, we know the resulting points 6’c’d’, and the sphere
a‘b'c'd', and its planes of intersection with the spheres
A, B, C, D, and also the intersections of these planes with
plane OPQ, and the tangent planes from these lines to the
given spheres, and .*. the sought sphere of contact.

And it may be remarked that to each plane of similitude
OPQ there are two answerable spheres abcd whose centres
(as also the centre of the corresponding sphere a’‘b'c'd’) are on
the perpendicular from the radical centre of the four
given spheres to the plane OPQ; and, moreover, that as there
are eight planes of similitude OPQ there are sixteen answer-
able touching spheres (real or unreal in pairs). We ma
further remark that this solution furnishes a proof that the
twelve vertices of similitude of the four given spheres lie in
sixes in the eight planes OPQ, and are the vertical points of
a complete octahedron.

It is also easy to see that the chords aa of the sphere A

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 69

pass respectively through the poles of the corresponding planes
OPQ in respect to sphere A, and all through R the radical
centre of the four given spheres ; and therefore, it follows,
that the eight lines in which the planes of intersection of the
eight spheres a’b‘c'd' with the sphere A cut the corresponding
eight planes OPQ of similitude, are situated in the polar
plane of the radical centre R in respect to the sphere A, &c.

Or we might determine the point @ (and hence 48, ¢, d)
from the following considerations :—Since Oa.Ob, and Pa.Pe
are of known magnitudes and that aO.ab has to aP.ac
a known ratio, therefore the point a must be on the surface
of a known sphere haying its centre in the straight line
through O and P.

Similarly, since Pa. Pe and Qa.Qd are of known magnitudes
and that aP.ac has to a@Q.ad a known ratio, therefore the
point @ must be on the surface of a known sphere having its
centre in the straight line through P and Q. Hence, as the
point @ is on the sphere A, it follows that it must be a point
of intersection of the circular traces made on the sphere A by
the two known spheres having their respective centres in the
straight lines PO and PQ.

The other solutions to Descartes’ problem of the spheres,
which are analogous to those I have given to Apollonius’
problem of the circles, may be easily made :—the tangent to
two circles in the plane being represented by a plane touching
three spheres, &c. And the actual operations are very simple
when performed according to Monge’s practical processes of
the geometry of figured space, known by the name of “ De-
scriptive Geometry.”

APOLLONIAN LOCI PROBLEM.

Given two points A, B, and the magnitudes of four lines a,
b, ec, d, to find the locus of a point P, such that AP? + ab ;

70 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

BP? + ed :: m : n,—/the ratio — being known in sign and
magnitude, and the rectangles a.b, c.d being also of known
magnitudes and signs).

ANALYSIS.

Suppose the points C and D on AP and BP such that
CA.AP = a.b, and DB.BP = c.d; then we have AP.CP :
BRE DPR esis ‘mint

But if Q be the poimt in BP such that the angle QA right
to P=CP right to D, we have ae ue == AP: CP-sand
therefore it follows that QP : BP : nN.

Hence if we Ben Ge parallel to ‘AQ to cut AB in O, we
have AO : BO: : n, and therefore the point O is known.
Moreover, the oie PO right to Q or D bemg equal QA
right to P or D, it is equal to CP right to D, and therefore
OP is a tangent to the circle CDP.

Now it is evident that if P’ be any point whatever, and
that C’ and D’ are taken on AP’ and BP’ so that C‘A.AP’ =
CA.AP, and D’B.BP’ = DB.BP, then will the circles PCD
and P’C’D’ have AB as radical axis, and therefore (as O is a
point on this radical axis) the tangent OP equal to the tangent
from O to the circle P’C’D’; but the circle P’C’D’ is known;
therefore OP is of known magnitude, and_ hence the locus of
P is a known circle having O for centre.

COMPOSITION,

Find O in AB such that AO : BO :: m : n; assume any
point P’, and in the straight lines AP’ and BP’ find the points
C’ and D' such that C’A.AP’ = 0:6, and DBP aed;
describe the circle P’C’D’, and draw a tangent to it from O ;
with O as centre and this tangent as radius describe a circle ;
this circle will be the required locus.

For let P be any poimt in its circumference, and C and D
the points in AP and BP such that CA.AP = C’A.AP’, and
DB.BP = D’‘B.BP’; and let Q be the pomt in which AQ
parallel to PO cuts PB.

The straight lime ABO is evidently the radical axis of the
circles PCD and P’C'D’, and therefore OP is a tangent to the
circle PCD. Hence angle CP right to D being equal angle
PO right to D, it is equal QA right to D or P, and therefore

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 71

me.CP: = OP DP... But QP.DP:BP/DP’:: QP: BP ?:
moO > BOL mm: a; hence AP.CP. = BP.DP : *m- 2 x,
and since AP.CP = AP? + a.b, and BP.DP = BP? + c.d,
therefore AP? + 4.6 : BP? + ed :: m: n.

DISCUSSION

It is evident the locus is real only when the centre and
radius are real; and it is also evident the centre is real for

all real values of “, and that the radius is real only when the
point O does not lie within the circumference P’C'D’.

It is evident the circle P’C’D’ will cut AB in real points
when a. and c.d are both positive, or when one of them is
positive and the other negative; but when a.d and c.d are
both negative, as the pomts P’, C’, D’ are then on the
same side of AB, it is obvious the circle P’C’D’ will or will
not cut AB in real points according to the conditions of the
data.

And if f and f represent the points in which the circle
P'D'C’ cuts AB, it is evident that fA.Af = ab, and that
[B.Bf = cd, the equalities bemg im signs as well as magni-
tudes.

When a.b and c.d are both negative.

Putting s and ¢ to represent the magnitudes of mean pro-
portionals between a and 8, and e¢ and d, it is evident that
when the distance between the given points (disregarding
directions) is less than the sum of s and ¢, or greater than
their difference, the circle P’C’D’ will not cut AB im real
points ; and when the distance between A and B is equal to
either the sum or difference of s and ¢, the circle P’C’D’ will
cut AB in real coincident points ; and when this distance is
greater than the sum of s and ¢ or less than their difference,
the circle P’C’D’ will cut AB in real distinct points f, f.

When the circle P’C’D’ does not cut AB in real points, it
is evident the tangent OP’ is real, and therefore that the
locus is a real circle for all real values of — positive or
negative.

When the circle P’C’D’ touches AB, the tangent OP’ is
always real, and in this case too the locus is always real :
moreover, it is evident that when m:n:: Af: Bf, the

72 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

centre O coincides with the double point f and the locus is an
infinitely small circle.

When the circle P'C’D’ cuts AB in real distinct point f and
f; it is to be remarked that these points are both between A
and B, or both on the same side of A and B, according as
the distance between A and B is greater than the sum or less
than the difference of s and ¢; moreover, when the distance
between A and B is less than the difference of s and ¢, the
two points f and f will lie in the production of AB through
A when sis less than ¢, and in the production through B
when ¢ is less than s. And it is obvious that the locus is real
for any value of ~ to which the corresponding centre O does
not lie between f and /.

Hence, when AB is greater than s + ¢, the locus is real for
all positive values of =; and, for negative values of =, the
locus is a real finite circle, a real finitely small circle, or an
imaginary circle, according as = is not comprehended between
the limiting values Be and is or equals one of them, or is
comprehended between them.

Similarly, when AB is less than the difference of s and ¢, it
is evident the locus is real for all negative values of ; and
for positive values of = the locus is real and finite, real and
infinitely small, or imaginary, according as — is not compre-
hended between, or equal to one of, or is comprehended
between the limiting values af and oe

In the case in which c.d = zero, the point D’ coincides with
B and the circle C’P’D’ cuts AB in B and in another point f
which lies between A and B, or coincides with B, or hes in
the production of AB through B according as s is less than,
or equal to, or greater than AB, and therefore the limits are
a known negative value and infinity negative when s is less
than AB, and a known positive value and positive infinity
when s is greater than AB. .. when sis less than AB the
locus is real for all positive values of =, and also for the nega-
tive values of ~ which are not comprehended between the
negative limit and negative infinity ; and when s is greater
than AB the locus is real for all negative values of ~, and for

the positive values of — not comprehended between the posi-
tive limit and positive infinity ; and when s = AB the locus

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 73

is real for all real values of ~. And in any of these three
cases it is evident the locus is an infinitely small circle when
is equal either of the limiting ratios of the case.

In case a.b = zero, and c.d = zero; then the points C’ and
D’ coincide with A and B, and the points/ and f also coincide
with A and B. And it is evident the limits are equal zero
and infinity, and that according as any value ~ is positive
or negative, so will the locus be real or imaginary; when
is equal either of the limits, the locus is an infinitely small
circle coincident with one of the given points.

If the pomts A and B coincide, and that a. = c.d, and that

“=+1; then since the point O may have any position

‘whatever in the line through A and B, and that the circle
P’C'D’ is real, it follows that there are innumerable circles
such that any pot P m the circumference of any of them
fulfils the conditions of the locus. The problem in this state
of the data is said to be “ porismatic.”’

When we suppose ~ = + 1, the centre O of the locus is

n

infinitely distant (when the points A, B are distinct) and the
tangent to the circle P’C’D' is parallel to AB ; and it is evident
the perpendicular from the point of contact on AB is entirely
in the infinitely great circle constituting the locus, and
passes through o’ the center of the circle P’C’D’. In this
case we have AP? — BP?=c.d — a., and the problem can be
enunciated as follows :—Given two points A and B to find the
locus of a point P, such that the square of its distance from A,
one of the given points, minus the square of its distance from the
other, shall be of a given magnitude c.d—a.b of known sign.

And if we suppose I a pomt in the line AB such that
BLIB = c.d, and that I remains fixed when B is infinitely
distant ; then it is obvious that P’D’ and PD are parallel to
AI and bisected by the perpendicular to AB through I; and
it is evident that when ~ is of a finite magnitude, this perpen-
dicular through I is entirely im the infinite locus.

Now it is further evident that if we suppose n always
= BI, and that B is at infinity in the direction AI,
then smce AP.CP : BP.DP :: m: BI, and that for points
P at finite distances, BP = BI, therefore AP.CP = DP.m.
And it is obvious that as DP is double the perpendicular from
P on the perpendicular through I to AB, the problem
becomes tantamount to what is given in the enunciation :—

74 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

“ To find the locus of a point P such that the sum of the square
of its distance from a given point A and a given negative mag-
nitude a.b. shall be equal to the rectangle under its distance
PK from a given straight line IK, and a line 2.m of a given
magnitude whose sign is known in respect to the direction of the
perpendicular to the given line 1K.”

And since AO : BO :: AP.CP : BP.DP and that, in this
case, BO = BP, therefore AO.DP = AP.CP = DP.m, and
hence AO = m. Therefore the solution for the problem just
enunciated may be worded as follows :—

In AI perpendicular to IK find O such that AO = 4
(twice m) =m; assume any pot P’, andin AP’ find C’ such
that AP’.C’A = a.b.; draw P’K’ perpendicular to IK, and
extend it on the other side of IK until K’D’ = P’K’; describe
the circle C’P’D'; draw a tangent from O to this circle;
from O as centre with this tangent as radius describe a circle,
and it will be the required locus.

It is to be observed that the locus is real and finite, real and
infinitely small, or imaginary according as O is outside, on, or
inside the circle C’P’D’. It is evident that when—a.6 is greater
than AI? the circle C’P’D’ aoes not cut AI in real poimts f
and f, and therefore that the locus is real for all real values of
m. When—a.b = AI the circle C’P’D’ touches AI in I,

and the points f coincide in I; and the locus is always real
for real values of m, and infinitely small when m = AI.
When a.é is less than AI? the circle C’P'D’ cuts AI in real
points f and f equidistant from I, and on the same side of
A as 1; and it is evident the locus is real for all values of m
having a different sign to the direction Al; and, moreover,
for a value of m having like sign with direction AI, it is
evident that according as it is not comprehended between the
limits Af and Af, or is equal one of them, or is comprehended
between them, so will the locus be real, real and infinitely
small, or imaginary.

Further, if we suppose a.b = zero, the limits Af and Af
are evidently = zero and twice AI, and include the values of
m for which the locus is imaginary.

When a.b is positive and c.d negative.

Here it is evident the poimt C’ is on a different side of
AB with the points D’, P’, and that the circle P’C’D’ cuts
AB, in one point between A and B, and in another in the

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 75

production of AB through A. Hence, we see that the limits
= and #4 ~ are the one positive and the other negative.

And it is evident that for all positive values of ~ the locus
is real, or real and infinitely small, or imaginary, , according
as is greater than the positive limit Bo or equal to it, or
less than it. And for negative values of = it is evident the
locus is real, real and infinitely small, or imaginary, SCS
as“ is numerically greater than the negative limit + ‘By - or
equal to it, or less than it.

If c.d = zero ; one of the points f coincides with B, and one
of the limits = infinity; and the other point / is in the pro-
duction of BA through A. In “eS case the locus is imaginary
for all Pee negative values of “, and real only for aoe
values of ~ which are not less than the other limit 4 = BF; and

when ~ is pail either limit, the locus is real and infinitely
small.

If a. and c.d be each equal zero ; then one point f coin-
cides with A, and the other with B, and the limits are + zero
and — infinity, and the locus is real only for finite values of
~ which are positive.

And, by similar considerations as were made use of when
a.b and c.d were regarded as negative, we are led to know
that a particular case of this problem may be enunciated as
follows :—‘ Given a point A and a straight line 1K in position;
to find the locus of a point P, such that AP? + a given positive
magnitude a.b shall be equal to the rectangle under a given
length 2.m, and the perpendicular distance PK of the point P
to the given line 1K. In which the sign of 2.m in respect to
the direction of PK is given.”

The solution may be worded exactly as in the similar case
when a.6 and c.d were regarded as negative. But it may be
remarked that here the points f, f, are always real when
the-data is real, and that they are equidistant from I, and on
opposite sides of A, &c., &c.,

When a.b and c.d are both positive.

It is evident the points C’, D’, and the point P’ are on
opposite sides of AB, and that the circle P’C’D’ always cuts
AB in real points f and J, one of which is in each production of

76 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

AB. And it is obvious that for all negative values of= (as the
corresponding points O lie between A and B) the locus is ima-
ginary ; and it is further evident that for positive values of =
between zero and the lesser limit, and between infinity and
the greater limit, the locus is also imaginary ; and that for all
other positive values of = the locus is real. And fora value
of =. equal either limit, the locus is infinitely small.

Having remarked the principal features of these three
divisions, the problem can now be considered under a
different form. For as the relations of the involved data
were expressed by

APA 0.07: Bet Cd tam ln
they are evidently expressed by
nm (AP?) — m (BP?) = m (c.d) — n (a.6)
and this can be orally expressed te the two following
manners; just according as we suppose — ~ positive or negative,
Viz :—

First enunciation—(when = is positive) —“ Given two points
A and B in position ; to find the locus of a point P, such that
n times the square of its distance from A, minus m times the
square of its distance from B shall be equal to a given magni-
tude g.h,” regarding n and m as real numbers.

Second enunciation—(when — is negative) — Given two
points A and B; to find the locus of a point P, such that n
times the square of its distance from A , plus m times the square
of its distance from B, shall be equal to a given magnitude g.h,”
regarding » and m as real numbers.

It is evident we can always determine a. and c.d so that

m.(ced) —n (ab) = gh, or, better still, we can always find a.d
ane that —n (a.6) = gh, and then ‘regarding cd = zero, we
still have m(c.d) —n(a.b) = g.h, and

ZN ence 77 2 BP? :: m:n.

In this form it is evident (from the preceding part of the
discussion) that one of the poimts f coincides with B, and
that the other point f satisfies the relation fA.AB = ab.

Now, when = is negative (and O between A and B) as we

can always assume m negative, and 7 positive, it is evident
that as n(AP?—) m(BP*) consists of two necessarily positive
terms, the y.4 in the second of the two preceding enuncia-
tions, can be regarded as always necessarily positive. This

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. Fai |

being done, it follows that the a.6 for the second enunciation

is negative, and .*. according as AO or . AB is less than,
a.b

equal to, or greater than Af or or em so will the locus be
real, real and infinitely small, or imaginary ; or which amounts
to the same thing—according as ™. AB? is less than, equal to,

m-%%
or greater than g.h, so will the locus be real, real and
infinitely small, or imaginary.

Again, when “* is positive (and therefore O is in a production
of AB) according as g./ in the first of these two enunciations
is negative or positive, we can take m and n, both positive or
both negative. Doing this makes the corresponding a.6 always
positive, and gives the point f which does not coincide with
B always in the production of AB through A. Hence we
see that the locus is always real in this case when 7 is nume-
rically greater than x. But when m is numerically less than

n, it is evident that according as AO or ()AB is longer

m=
b -@l
than fA (or = or —%,), or equal to it, or less than it,

so will the locus be real—real and infinitely small—or

imaginary; or, which amounts to the same thing, according
(“ )AB? is in extent greater than—equal to—or less
than g., so will the locus be real—real and infinitely small

—or imaginary.

NOTES.

In respect to the general loci problem just investigated, it
may be remarked that if S be the point in which CD cuts
AB, then will AS : BS :: AC.PD : BD.PC. And since
this last ratio is evidently compounded of the known ratios,
AC.AP to BD.BP, and PD.PB to PC.PA, it follows that the
point S is known, as also the magnitude of the rectangle
SC.SD.

And from this it is evident the problem may have had its
origin in the following

GENUINE* ANCIENT PORISM.
If the sides ab, be, ed, de, ef, fg, of a polygon abcdefg in-
* The ancient porisms were formal investigations for theorems, and for
the relative states of the data of problems which might cause the solu-

tions to be innumerable. The modern porisms are but theorems originally
derived from porismatic researches.

78 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

scriptable in a circle pass through fixed pois A, B, C, D, K,
F, G, and that the rectangles Aa.Ab, Bb.Be, &c., under the
distances of the fixed points from the angular points on the sides
through them are constants ; to find the relations amongst the
data so that the locus of a, any angle of the polygon, may be
found, &c.

ANALYSIS.

Let O be the centre of the circle abcdefg. Then, since
AO? —rad2.O and GO? — rad? O are equals to Aa.Ad and
. Gg.Ga, ... GO? — AO? must be constant, and the perpendicu-
lar from O on AG must cut it ina fixed poimt. Similarly,
the perpendicular from O on BG must cut it also in a fixed
poimt. And hence we see that when any three A, G, B, of
the points are not ina straight line, the centre O of the circle
is fixed, as also the circle O itself. And in this case the locus
of a must be—if anywhere—in the circumference of the circle
O.

But if the fixed points A, B, C, &c., be im a straight line,
it is evident the centre O is not a fixed point, and that its
locus is restricted to a straight line perpendicular to the line
ABC, &c., and that its circumference must pass through two
fixed points, real or imaginary, in the lime ABC, &e. More-
over; it is evident that if we put X for the pomt m which the
perpendicular from O cuts AB, &c., and that we put 2”, a’, 6’,
c’, &e., for the distances of X, A, B, C, &c., from an assumed
point on ABC, &c., then must the following relations exist,
ViZ.0'(a —2')? (62) = lm, (a =e) = (C=) ae
(d—2')) — (d'-a')) =I-p, (a'-2')) — (¢-a') =1-g, (a=
gw)? — (fiH2eeal=r, (=a? = 9-2) = sine
l, m,n, p, 7; 7, 8, represent the magnitudes of the constant
rectangles. And determining on any N+2 of the 2N+1
quantities represented we can easily find the remaining N—].
Now looking on the three consecutive sides ab, bc, cd, of the
polygon, we know (from involution property of mscriptable
quadrilateral) that when the points A, B, C, D, EH, F, G are
in a straight line, ad passes through a fixed point im this hne;
and lookmg on the three consecutive sides ad, de, and ef, we
know that af passes through a fixed point in the same line
ABC, &c. And in this manner we may evidently proceed
until we come to the last so formed quadrilateral having its
fourth side coincident with aside of the polygon, or infinitely
small, and tangent at a, just according as the number of sides

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 79

of the polygon is even or odd. Now the points and magni-
tudes being as above indicated, it is evident that when the
number of sides is odd, the locus of @ is a circle having as
centre the fixed pomt in which the tangent at aw cuts ABC,
and a radius equal this tangent, whose magnitude is evidently
constant. And when the number of sides of the polygon is
even, the locus, under the prescribed necessary conditions for
inscriptable poly gons, is not restricted in the plane.

Again, returning to the case in which the points are not in
a straight line, we have seen that the circle O is fixed, and
that the locus of a—if ais at all capable of innumerable con-
tinuous positions—must be the circumference of circle O. And
here, in order to facilitate the investigation of the relations,
let us first suppose a polygon of three sides, and see whether
it is possible to have three poimts A, B, C not ina straight line,
so related that if through any one of them C we draw any chord
rs to a fixed circle, and Ar to cut the circle again in /, and
As to cut the circle again in v, then will sf and 7v pass
through B.

Now, from the properties of poles and polars, it is easy to
see that when each of the three points is the pole of the line
joiming the other two, these conditions will be fulfilled; more-
over, since if any two A, B of the pomts so determined be
fixed, the third C is in the intersection of the perpendiculars
from A on OB and from B on OA, it follows that the given
poimts must be restricted to the number three when they are
not all in a straight line.

I need scarcely mention that similar investigations may be
made when instead of points in a plane, &c., we are proposed
points on the surface of a sphere, and the products of the tan-
gents of the halves of the segments made on the sides of the
inseriptable polygon by the fixed poimts through which they
pass; or, when we are proposed points in space, and a figure
inseriptable im a sphere, and constant rectangles under the
distances from the fixed points to its angles situated on the
sides passing through these fixed points.

PORISMATIC RESEARCHES.

(The figures to be supplied by the reader.)

Given three straight lines MM, NN, and LL, in position,
and given the point P in the first line MM, and the point Qin

80 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

at
the second line NN ; through two given points B, C, to draw
two straight lines BI, Cl, intersecting each other on Li, the
third given line, so that E and F being the respective points in
which BI and CI cut MM and NN, we shall have PE to QF
in the given ratio of m ton. (The magnitude of = is not only
considered known, but its sign also—the directions on MM and
NN being considered.)

ANALYSIS. Se

-From porisms in the Transactions for 1859, we know that
if we draw QA making the angle QN right to A =PM
right to B, and that we make QA to PB as QF to PE or as
m : n, then will BE and AF intersect in a point O in the
circumference of the circle described through A, B, and the
point R of intersection of PB and QA. eal

And from porism 8 in the Transactions for 1859, we know
that if we draw CG and CD parallels to NN and LL to cut
LL and NN in G and D, then will GI.DF be equal to the ©
known magnitude GC.DC. ‘Therefore, since the pomts B and
A are known, and also the circle ABR, it follows (by problem
second, Jransactions for 1859) we can draw the straight lnes
BOI and AOF, and therefore also CIF through I where BO
cuts LL.

COMPOSITION.

Through C draw CG and CD parallels respectively to NN
and LL, to cut Land NN in G and D; draw QA making
the angle QN right to A equal to PM right to B, and make
QA : PB:: m: m, describe a circle through A, B, and R
the intersection of PB and QA; find a poimt O in the circle’s
circumference (by problem second, Transactions for 1859)
such that I and F being the points in which BO and AO cut
LL and NN, we shall have GI.DF = GC.DC; draw FC to
cut LL, then will BI and FC be answerable lines. .

For let E be the point inwhich BI cuts MM. _ By porisms, _
(in Transactions for 1859) we have the poimt I on the line
PC; and PH: QB: sania.

PORISMATIC RELATIONS OF DATA. %

Before entering on the investigation of the porismatic
_ relations, it may be as well to observe that it is evident that

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 81

as there are two answerable pairs of lines BO, AO (see
problem second, in Transactions for 1859), there are two pairs
of answerable lines BI, CI; and that according as the lines
BO, AO are real and imaginary, so will BI CI be xreabor
imaginary. Moreover, it is evident that when + is not
restricted as to sign, there are four solutions to this problem,
two of which cannot be always real, &c.

Now, it is evident (from porismatic theorems in Transactions
for 1859), that in the porismatic state of the data of the present
problem, we must have the angle DN rightto A = angle GB
right to L,and DA.GB = DC.GC; and, moreover, a straight
line through A parallel to NN must cut BG in a point S on
the circumference of circle ABR. But (from porisms in
Transactions for 1859) the angle OA right to B is equal
angle NN right to MM, and .-. angle SA right to B being
equal to this last angle, it follows that SGB must be parallel
to MM. Again, for any finite value of “, it is evident that
QC must pass through the pomt H in which BP cuts LL.
It is also evident the triangles BGC, CDA, are similar. And
if T be the point in which DA cuts the circle ABOSR, we
have the angle BS right to T = AS right to T = DN right
to A = GB right to L; and therefore BT is parallel to
LL.

Hence, we see that in the porismatic state QC and PB
intersect on the line LL, and that BG and CG parallels

respectively to MM and NN intersect on LL, and that the
ratio ~ is equal to the ratio of the segments PU and QD,
made on MM and NN by straight lines BU and CD parallel
to LL. ald , =

And we deduce the following important porisms :—

PORISM.

Given two points B, C, and two straight lines MM, NN, in
position, and the point P in MM, and the point Qin NN; a
_ straight line LL can be found, such that I being any point in™
it, and & and ¥ the respective points in which 1B and IC cut
MM and NN, we shall have PE to QF in a constant deter- -

minable ratio. .

For BG and CG parallels to MM and NN, give us one
point G inthe required line ; and QC and BP give us another
point in the required line by their intersection: therefore the

G

82 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

line LL through G and H isknown. The determinable ratio
can be found by drawing CD and BU parvallel to LL, to cut
NN and MM in D and U: itis that of PU to QD.

PORISM.

Given the point P in a given straight ine MM, and a point
Qin a given straight line NN, given also a point B, and a
straight line LL; a point C can be determined such that lines
drawn from any point I in the third given line Li, through
the given point B and the determined point C to cut MM and
NN, respectively in EH and F, we shall have PE to QF ma
constant determinable ratio.

For BPH is known, and BG parallel to MM is known, and
therefore GC through G parallel to NN is known in position;
and hence the point C where GC cuts QH. And I being any
assumed point in LL, and H, F, the points in which BI and
CI cut MM and NN, the required ratio is evidently the same
of that of PH to QF. Or, drawing CD and BU parallel
to LL to cut NN and MM in D and can the required ratio is
evidently the same as that of PU to QD (the lines CD, BU
intersect at infinity on LL).

PORISM.

Two points B, C, and two straight lines MM, LL, are
given in position, and a point P inthe first of these lines MM ;
a straight line NN and a point Q in tt can be found, such that
if lines 1B and IC be drawn from any point I in the second
LL of the given lines through B and C, to cut MM and NN,
in EK and F respectively, then will PE have to QF the given
ratio of 1 to un.

For we can draw BG parallel to MM to cut LL in G, and
therefore we have CG to which NN must be parallel. Again
we have BP and point H where it cuts LL; and therefore
HCQ through H and C is known in position. And we have
*PU, U being the point in which BU parallel to LL cuts MM.
And if D be the point in which CD parallel to LL cuts NN,-
then sinceQD: PU :: m:n, and that QDis parallel to CG,
it follows QD is known, and therefore NN with which it is
coincident.

If the ratio = be not restricted in sign in respect to direc-
tions on CG anid MM, it is evident there are two positions

and Loci of Apollonius, &e. 83

for QD or NN equidistant from C and parallel to CG; and
‘. also two points Q, one in each line NN.

PORISM.

Given the lines MM, NN, and the points P and Q therein
—one in each line; given also a point C and a ratio =

2: innu-
merable points B and corresponding straight lines LL parallel
to any given direction can be Sound, such that I being any point
in LL and i, F, the points in wheel = and IC cut MM and
NN, we shall have PE : QF : n.

For QCH is known in PE eS we CG parallel to NN is
known in position, and CD parallel to the given direction is
known in position, and DA making the angle DA right to C
= NN right to MM is known in position ; and the circle QPR
is known. And since PU :: QD:: m : n, the point U is
known, and hence UB parallel to CD is known. And R
being any point in the eircle which passes through the inter-
_ section of MM and NN, and through the points P and Q,

the lines RP and RQ will cut UB and DA in B and A,
making the triangles DAQ, UBP similar ; therefore drawing
BG parallel to MM to cut CG in G, we have the triangles
BGH similar to QDA, and therefore LL through G parallel
to CD is a required line Lh, and B is its corresponding point
(the locus of B is evidently a known straight line UB).

If = be not restricted as to sign, then evidently the entire
locus of B is two known parallels equidistant from P, &c., &e.
PORISM.

Given two points B, C, and two lines MM, NN, in position,
and a point P in MM; a point Q can be found in NN, such
that straight lines BI, Cl, to any point I in a determinable
straight line LL shall cut MM and NN in E and F, so that
PE shall have to QF the given ratio of m to n.

For we have BG and CG parallel to MM and NN; and
therefore as the triangle CDA is similar to BGC, the locus of
A is a known straight line KK. And as QA lies between
NN, KK, making the angle QA right to N = PB right to
M, and that it has to PB the given ration : m, .. QA is
evidently known in magnitude and position ; hence, the line
CD (making the angle CD right to A = BG right to vi is
known, and .*. LL through G ee allel to CD.

G2

ae
84.7% >» The Three Sections, Tangencies,

If the ratio — be not restricted in sign, it 1s evident there
are two positions for QA equally distant from the intersection
of KK and NN, and therefore also two answerable lines LL
corresponding to the points Q and Q.

oe
# PROBLEM II.

Given three straight lines MM, NN, and LL in position;
and the points P and Q in the two first lines—one in each;
through two given points B, C, io draw straight lines BI, Cl,
intersecting each other on the third g given line, so that B and ¥
being the points in which they cut MM and NN (the first and
second lines) we shall have PH.QFE equal a given magnitude
m.n(the sign of m.n is supposed known, &c.).

ANALYSIS.

From porism 10 in the Transactions for 1859, it is obvious
that if we draw QA making the angle QN nght to A = the
angle PB right to M, and QA.PB = QF.PE = m.n, and that _
through A we draw a parallel to NN to cut PB im K, then %
will FA and EB intersect im a point O in the circumference
of the circle ABK.

And from porism 8, in the Transactions for 1859, it is evi-
dent that by drawing CG and CD parallels respectively to
NN and LL, to cut ‘Tal and NN in G and D, we will have
GLDF = GC.DC = a known magnitude. And since ©
through A and B, the les AO and BO ‘(ntersecting in the
known circumference AKB), make GI.DF of a known mag-
nitude; therefore (by the,second problem in the Transactions
for 1859) AO and BO are known in position, ng hence the
points E and F, and line FCI, &c.

oe P REMARKS.

The Composition and Discussion may be easily made if
thought» necessary, but as my chief object is to develop the
porismatic relations of the involved data, I will at once pro-
ceed to do so. ' W.

Porismatic Relations of Data.

It is evident, from porisms in the Transactions for 1859,
that this problem will become. poxismatic when the angle GL
right to B = DA right to N, and that GB.DA = GC.D
And if K’ be the point in which GB euts the circle AB

” «“

te?

Be

:

&
and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 85

¥
K’A must be parallel to NN, because the segment GI corre-
sponding is infinitely small. Therefore in the porismatic
state of the data, PBGK must be a straight line. And the
point Q must be such that after drawing DA making the
angle DA right to N = GL right to B, and DA.GB = DC.
GC, we shall have the angle QN right to A = PB right to
M, ‘and QA.PB = mn.

‘And for similar reasons to those which cause PB to pass
through G, will the straight line QC pass through ie point
H in which BH parallel to MM euts LL.

Hence ) we easily deduce the following important porism

.

“f
™" PORISM.

A point P (and but one) can be found in a given straight
line MM, and a. corresponding point Q in another given line
NN, such that if straight lines BI, CI, be drawn from any
point 1 in a third given line LL thr ‘ough two gwen points B,
C, to cut MM and NN respectively in E and F, we shall have
PE.QF of a constant determinable magnitude.

For (from what has been observed) drawing BH and CG
parallels respectively to MM and NN, to cut LL in H and
G, it follows that GB will cut MM in P, and HC will cut
NNinQ@. And drawing CD and BU parallels to LL, to cut
NW and MM vespectively in D and U, it is evident (since

_ these parallels intersect at infinity on LL) PE.QF must

always = a 4
; PORISM.

Given in position a straight line Lb and the points Band C;
through two other given points P, Q, two straight lines MM
and NN«(and but two) can be dr awn, such that 1 being any
point in LL and E and F the points in which 1B and IC cut
MM and NN, we shall have PE.QF of a constant determin-
able magnitude. *

~ _ For the lines PB, and QC give us the sicamitn Gand Hin

their intersections with LL; and PMM, QNN, must be
parallels (respectively) ‘to BH and GC. And PE.QF =
PU.QD = a known magnitude,

PORISM,

a

Two points B, C, and two'straight lines MM, LU, are given

ei in position, and a point Pa in MM; a straight Tine NN and a

:
& ed

86 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

point Q in it can be found, such that 1 being any point in LL,
and BK, F the points in which IB, IC cut MM and NN, then
will PE.QF be of a given magnitude m.n.

For PBG, BU, and BH are known, as also HC; and CD
parallel LL is known in position; and .-. since PU.QD =
m.n, it is evident NDQN between HC and CD and parallel
to CG is known in position.

If m.n is not restricted in sign, there are two answerable
lines NN equidistant from CG, &c. .

PORISM.

Given the points P, Q, in the gwen lines MM, NN, and
given also a point B and a straight line LL in position ;
another point C can be found, such that I being any point in
LL, and E and F the points in which 1B and IC cut MM and
NN, we shall have PH.QE of a constant determinable magni-
tude.

For PBG, BH, and HQ are known, and therefore the point
C where. GC parallel to NN cuts HQ, and therefore also
PE.QF = PU.QD is determined.

PORISM.

Given the points P and Q in the given straight lines MM
and NN, and given also a point B; a point C and a straight
line LL, parallel to a given direction can be found, such that I
being any point whatever in this line, and KH, F the points in
which IB and IC cut MM and NN, we shall have PH.QF of a
given magnitude m.n.

The straight line PBG is known in position, and the line
BH parallel to MM is known in position; and QA and point
A are known ; and drawing BU parallel to the given direc-
tion, the point U in MM is known, and therefore D in NN
(because PU.QD = PB.QA = m.n) ; therefore DC parallel
to BU is known in position. And since if through A we
draw AD’ parallel to CD (since angle AC right to D’ = CA
right to D = BCright to G) the circle ACB is known ; hence
the pot C in which this circle cuts DC is known, and
therefore CG parallel to NN, and the point G in which it
cuts PB, and therefore LL through G parallel to DC or BU.

Itis evident there are two answerable points C, and that to
each one corresponds an answerable line LL. |

cf

and Loci of Apollonius, &c. 87

If the sign of m.z is unrestricted, there are four answerable
points and their corresponding lines LL, &c., &e.

NOTES.

By means of the porisms now given, and those in the
Transactions for 1859, we are enabled to give simple solutions
to the following interesting problems, viz. :—

To construct a quadrilateral having its four sides passing
through given points, and two of its opposite angles on given
straight lines, and such moreover that the other two angles
shall be of given magnitudes, or be situated on given straight
lines, or such that one of them shall be of a given magnitude
and the other be situated on a given straight line.

They can be easily reduced to the third problem i in Trans-
actions for 1859.

And from the porismatic state of the data in these problems
numerous interesting and useful porisms may be derived— ~
one of which is as follows :—

Given a point P and two straight lines MM, NN; then if
B and C be any points in these lines such that the angle PB
right to C shall be of a given magnitude, another point Q may
be found such that the angle QB right to C shall be of @ con-
stant determinable magnitude.

- FINAL OBSERVATIONS.

In the preliminary observations I have pointed out advan-
tages to be derived from my new methods of defining angular
magnitudes ; and those who have carefully studied the solu-
tions to the problems contained in this paper, cannot bé
unaware of the value of these advantages. However, I will
now give a few other instances of the improvements which
they effect in important theorems :—

First. The theorem on page 465 of the Géométrie Supé-
rieure should be replaced by the following :—

A moveable tangent tt rolling on the cir cumference of ae
circle whose centre is C, cuts two fixed tangents m'm’. n'n’, in
two points m, un, such that the “angle Cm right to n” as
constant = 9 right.

Second. The theorem on page 457 (which is so defective
that its reverse is untrue) should be replaced by the follow-
ing :—

4 3
ak
<.

a

-

88 The Three Sections, Tangencies,

If A, B be two fixed points in the circumference of a circle,
and P any point whatever in the circumference, then will the
angle PA right to B be constant = 6 right.

And I may remark that by adopting this property as the

fundamental definition of a circle, it would be easy to frame
‘an Element of Geometry in which we could give a direct

demonstration to the fact, that a point O, and but one, exists
from which lines drawn to the circumference of the circle (or
locus of P) are equal to each other. é

. © This might be done in various ways ; but perhaps the most

simple, as well as the most natural,* would be to have a

-knowledge of the Theory of Numbers, including proportion

in its most general form, precede the study of geometrical

science, so as to establish the relations of straight-lined

figures as early as possible.

The demonstration might be made as follows :—

Bisect AB in C and through C draw MM perpendicular to
AB; find O in MM such that the angle OC right to B= 0
right ; then will O be the sought point.

For let I be the other point in which the circle described
from C as centre with CA or CB as radius again cuts AP.

re ' mi

* On careful examination it will be found that all our Geometry rests
ultimately on our power of conceiving the positions and motions of points,
lines, and surfaces, and on acquirements in the Theory of Numbers, whether
we depend on our intuitive ideas of these things, or that we acquire a more
extended systematic knowledge before commencing the study of a regular
course of geometry. And this should lead us to look on the Theory of
Numbers as primary to geometry, inasmuch as without some knowledge of
numbers there can be no systematic treatise, and that the introduction of it
from the commencement confers simplicity and comprehensiveness on the
Elements. However, many are to be found who think they proceed with-
out the use of numbers or proportion, when they disguise their investigations
so as to mislead themselves: for wherever there is an idea of equality there
must be an idea of proportion; though not necessarily so refined or compre-
hensive a one as Euclid’s. Others are to be found who would trammel the
natural action of the intellect, and compel the geometer to discard all con-
ceptions of motion, as foreign to the spirit of pure geometrical science. They
point confidingly to what works of the ‘‘Ancients” now remain in support of
their crotchet, asaf the philosophy of the Greeks were perfect, and should
prescribe limits to the march of progress. But, though truth may be for a

* time suppressed, by the combined efforts of masters and professors it will yet

triumph ; and an axiomatic motional philosophy will correct the faulty links
and defective logic in the system of geometry which now unfortunately
preyails. Indeed, as in other sciences, it will be found, on careful examina-
tion, that geometry has inherent properties independent of man’s endow-
ments, and exacts peculiar mental operations, from capable beings who fathom
some of its various truths, which cannot be prescribed or varied at man’s”

pleasure. for they are ordinances of the laws of nature, and can change
only, at the will of Providence. ~

and Loci of Apollonius, &e. ‘ 89

The triangles BCI, ICA being isosceles, we have the angle
IA or IP right to B = CB right to O; but PA or PI right
B = OC right to B; therefore the angle BC right to O =
angle BI right to P, and the equiangular triangles OCB, PIB
give BC : BI: : BO: BP. ;

And since the angle BC right toO = BI right to P, we
have the angle BC right to. I = BO right to P; and, there-
fore, since BC : BI :: BO: BP, the triangles BCI, BOP,
are similar, and give OB : OP :: CB: CI.

Hence, as CB = CI we have OB = OP bb.

COROLLARY.

If P’ be the position of P infinitely near to or coincident
with B, then P’B is tangent at B; and putting MM for this
tangent, we have angle BA right to M = PA right to B =
OC right to B, and .*. BM is perpendicular to BO.

-
.. = oe he ss

ay

Art. I1.—A Communication from the Reverend W. B.
CxiarkeE, of Sydney, to His Excellency Sir Henry Bark y,
K.C.B., &c., &e., President of the Royal Society of Vic-
toria, on Professor McCoy’s ‘‘ New Teniopteris” from the
Coal-bearing Rocks of the Cape Paterson District in parti-
cular, and on the Evidence bearing on the Question of the
Age of Australian Coal Beds in general.—Communicated to
the Society by His Excellency THe PresipEnt.

[Read before the Royal Society, 25th June, 1860.]

St. Leonard’s, 1st June, 1860.
My Dear Sir, .

I recetvep with much thankfulness the kind reply which
you were good enough to send to the letter which I did
myself the honour of addressing to your Excellency.

The information contained in it respecting the discovery of
Teniopteris, at Cape Paterson, is very interesting. But I

hel

90 Rev. W. B. Clarke’s Communication on

hesitate, at present, to admit that such a discovery determines
the fact of the existence of the Jurassic formation in Victoria.
Of course, not knowing what species have been found, or even
if the genus be really Teniopteris (for many of those plants so
called are not Teniopteris at all), it is impossible for me to
come to any conclusion on the subject. But in a paper which
I propose to write, so soon as I can find leisure, I will en-
deavour to show what are the real grounds upon which I have
ventured to contend, and still do contend, against the sweep-
ing assertion of those geologists who maintain that a formation
so abundant in zoological fossils (more so than, perhaps, any
other) as the Jurassic, is found here, where no one, in any
part of the Australian continent, has ever detected one single
species, on the strength of the evidence derived from a few.
(probably not six in all) species of plants, the true description
of which does not agree in all things with the typical charac-
ters of the genera under which the species are ranked.

Thetwo genera, Teniopteris and Glossopteris (Sagenopteris),
have been the means of placing, by some geologists, the coal
deposits of Australia and India in the horizon of the oolitic
coal. Now the latter occurs in no less than five distinct
formations in India, as Mr. Oldham informs me, and it also
occurs in Africa, where the evidence appears to be against
the supposed epoch.

As to Teniopteris, so far from the genus determining the
age of a formation, Jukes, who follows Bronn, assigns the
species thus :—

Carboniferous 1]

Permian .. Me ses ie
Trias. os. ys a i ee
Oolitic ae 2 iO
Tertiary .. ae ei

It is, therefore, the species which must determine whether the
new found plants belong to the oolites or not; and when we
come to Yorkshire, which is one of the references, we find in
Phillips no figure of any species of Teniopteris, and only one
catalogued 7’. latifolia, of which he gives as synonym 7.
major of Lindley and Hutton, which is not a Teniopteris at
all, ze. if we are to regard Brongniart’s description of the
genus as that to which we are, undoubtedly, to have respect.
Again, Morris assigns to 7. major the synonym <Aspidites
Williamsonis, from Géppert, to which genus it certainly be-
longs. The last writer also shows that another species, 7.

Professor McCoy’s New Teniopteris. 91

vittata, which Morris classes as Phillips’ Scolopendrium
solitarium, the figures of which, in Brongniart and Phillips,
are neither in agreement with Brongniart’s generic characters
of Teniopteris, is an Aspidites, viz., A. teniopteris, and so of
others. It appears therefore, to me, that, without taking any
positive evidence from stratigraphical data into account,
to assign an epoch to ‘an enormous formation (for such it is
in this colony), in which no zoological evidence has been de-
tected on account of even two genera of plants, the species of
which are in the present condition, and the genera of which
are referable to more than the assumed epoch, is anything
but philosophical.

Mr. Morris, rather on the absence of certain forms, than
on the presence of what Strzelecki had collected, though ad-
mitting the full force of conclusions from the examination of
his plants, thought, in 1845, that in Australia the carbonifer-
ous formation had a different vegetable facies from what it
had in Europe. And later, Mr. McCoy, who knew nothing
of Australian plants, except from the collections which I
had made and sent to Professor Sedgwick, came to a conclu-
sion which I have always considered hasty, that because of
the absence of certain genera, and the presence of others
which have a relation to some oolitic species, there are two
carboniferous formations “ without any confusion of type,”
one of which was then shown to be at the base of the moun-
tain limestone, and the other assumed to be oolitic. At the
time, I requested, in a note to the Philosophical Magazine,
that geologists would suspend their judgment on the point in
dispute. Since then, in full confirmation of what I stated in
a paper read to the Geological Society of London, others
besides myself have found some of the missing true coal
plants, and I am now in a position to point out six localities
in this colony, and in Queensland, where they are to be found ;
and I was glad to see, on my first visit this year to the Mel-
bourne Museum, that one of the said plants had also found
its way from Gipps Land, whence I had long before had fine
carboniferous specimens.

The whole question, then, is resolved into this: are there
really two carboniferous formations ?

Professor McCoy has admitted my facts in his paper on
the Clark-Sedgwick fossils, in adopting my habitats. But
he was slow in admitting what I stated to him in February
last, that now we have found, in New South Wales, coal

Sad
~- 92 Rev. W. B. Clarke’s Communication on

seams'in the very heart of his mountain limestone fossils, and
that plants known in the Newcastle beds, which he calls
oolitic, were found at the very bottom of the whole series of
these newly-opened beds, containing the mountain hmestone
fossils.

Whilst, then, such is the case, I look with great interest,
but with great suspicion, on any alleged discovery of gre
jurassic ox,oolitic evidence, in the small patchy coal formation
in Victoria. .

And as what I saw in the museum of so-called Glossopteris
Browniana, from Darley and Bacchus Marsh, did not appear
to me to be certain evidence of the species even, I do not yet
know how far even that genus, aided now by Teniopteris,
will go to establish the probability of the supposition in
question.

At the same time, I have no wish to speak otherwise than
respectfully of Professor McCoy’s judgment and learning.
Only, I wish to know, whether the new plants are really

what they are called ?

' Whilst on this topic I would mention, that there is a living
genus of ferns im Africa, which Sir W. Hooker .calls
Teniopteris, which, however, does not agree with the fossil
genus, nor belong, I believeysto the same group. But in
India, and in the Islands of the Pacific, there is a genus,
Oleandra,. which does agree with Brongniart’s» definition ;
and which has its fructification like that of Aspidites, under
_which head I would class many so called Teniopteris.

I saw some months ago, at Elizabeth Bay, a large collection
of ferns from the Pacific, inithe collection of my friend Mr.
Macleay, and I then recognised the peculiar form and struc- &
ture which I have mentioned. 4

Would it be at all remarkable if every genus, or even many
species of genera, of ferns found in our carboniferous forma-
tion, whatever its real epoch, should be found in some part
of the lands in the Pacific ? — ; *

The fossil mammals are represented by living forms—
why not the fossil plants? Is it credible, that im the car-
boniferous epoch of Europe, though the sea swarnied with»
the same zoological genera and species, that the land should
bear nothing but the identical plants of Europe, in Australia ?
Or, is it incredible that in Australia, plants might then exist
which did not come into existence in Europe till long after ?

I have been led to think on this by the discovery recently

."

= »*»
Professor McCoy’s New Teniopteris. 93

of so many living genera of plants of Australia, &c.; im a
fossil state in the tertiaries of the Vienna basin.

Whilst there are so many increasing proofs of varying
centres of life, all dogmatism on insufficient evidence must be
held unsound. -

It is only within a few days that I have had brought to
me; from Brunswick, a collection which proves that there
may be grounds yet found for placing some portions of
what Mr. McCoy calls our oolitic beds, and which I consider
parts of one series, going down to the true carboniferous of
Europe, in anew light. In the Hartz, or a little to the
north of it, there has been found a series with plants which
lies between the Lias and the Keuper, and if these beds
shall be found not to be Keuperian, they must still be
considered older than the Lias.

Certainly one species is very much lke a plant I showed
to Mr. McCoy, and Which he did not consider Teniopteris.
The Ofen plant (for that is its locality), like that I took to
Melbourne from the Wianamatta beds of the New South
Wales series, and which I place on the exact horizon of the
Barrabool Hills beds, from careful comparisons of the forma-
tions, i.e., at the very top of our New South Wales coal
beds, or rather coal formations, agrees with Teniopteris in
the form and independence of the frond, and im the thickness —
of the midrib, but differs in the neuration, haying only minute
perpendicular simple nerves.

The Ofen plants have been found in Sweden, and have
oe I think, described by Angelin. Professor Blasius dis-

* vered them near Brunswick. With them are found
dicotyledonous leaves like the Myricacez, and others like
© Salix, Corylus, Oak, &e. :
“These are not ferns, as some persons at first believed.
al There are also one Nilsonia, one Cycadites, Calamites and
one Carpolithus, with some true ferns, and small portions of
brown dirty coal and remains of wood. *

The specimens brought hither aré in a sad broken state,
owing to accidents on board ship. But I give not my own
determinations, but those of Dr. Blasius.

I would not be surprised, when the whole deposit of
our carboniferous series shall be made known, if doubts
should arise as to the confidence with which some persons
speak as to the correlation of the Australian and Indian
coal beds.

Trusting that ; you will kindly pardon this long letter, and

9A: Rev. W. B. Clarke’s Communications on

allow me to defer to another time the discussion in full of
the subject of it, ,
I have the honor to remain,
My dear Sir,
Your Excellency’s faithful servant,

(Signed) W. B. Crarke.
His Excellency Sir Henry Barkly, K.C.B.

P.S.—I have written the foregoing in haste ; but if any
discussion arise at the Royal Society, to which my friend Dr.
Miiller wishes me to contribute a paper on the subject of the
coal formation, and if your Excellency please, I have no ob-
jection that what I have written should be made use of. It
might serve to foreshadow some points in the argument.

In my letter I have not alluded to Virginia; but on
reference to Mr. Bunbury’s description of Teniopteris magni-
folia, brought by Mr. Lyell, and on which stress is laid, I
find he considers it in some respects akin to the living
Oleandra pilosa, which justifies what I have said before ; and
I think his description of the neuration agrees very nearly
with that of the plant I mentioned from Ofen, near Bruns-
wick, and that also from my Wianamatta beds of Paramatta.
(See what he says, Q. J. III., 281, 287.)

Nor have I said anything of India. But if we refer to
M‘Clelland’s figures—(Report, 1850, t. XV., XVI.,) we shall
see that his T. spatulata and T. acuminata are Nor Teniopteris ;
and his third species, T. daneoides, as defined by Goppert
(p. 352), is an Aspidites.

The bearing of the reference to Aspidites is this: that it is
a genus which is not confined to the Jurassic epoch ; and one ~
species called 7. vittata belongs to the Keuper. This last
formation has more to do with us than some think.

Tzeniopteris.
I. (A Brongniart Hist. des Veg. Foss., tom I., p. 262.)
(1.) Folia simplicia, integerrima.
(2.) Nervo medio crasso rigido.
(3.) Nervulis perpendicularibus.
(4.) Vel Bast furcatis.

Fructificatio punctiformis.

II. (G6ppert Die Fossilen Farrnkrauter, p. 58.)
(1.) Frons simplex—integerrima.

Professor McCoy’s New Teniopteris. 95

(2.) Nervo medio crasso rigido.
(3.) Nervulis perpendicularibus.
(4.) Simplicibus vel Bast furcatis.

Die Arien diser Gattung sind den Aspidien mit ganzen
Wedein tihnlich.

III. (Lindley and Hutton, Vol. I., p. xivrit.)
(1.) Leaves simple entire.
(2.) With a stiff thick midrib.
(3.) Veins perpendicular, simple,
(4.) Or forked at THE BASE.

They assign three species to Lias and Oolites, and give two
figures :

(a.) Vittata—not in agreement with the definition.
(b.) Major—not, &c.

They admit that (a) is hardly distinguishable from the
living Indian Aspidium Wallichianum; (b) may be almost
identified with Scolopendrium officinarum, a living British
plant.

(I1V.) (Brongniart Prodrome, p. 61.)

(1.) Fronde simple, entiére, etroite 4 bords paralléles,
traversée, par

(2.) une nervure moyenne, forte, epaisse, qui s’étend
jusqw al extremité ; nervures secondaires

(4.) presque simples ou bifurquée

(3.) & la Base, presque perpendiculaire sur la nervure
moyenne.

96 Commentary on

Art. I1I.—A Commentary on “ A Communication made by the
Rev. W. B. Crarxe to His Excellency Sir Henry Barkty,
K.C.B., &c., &c., President of the Royal Society of Victoria,

~ on Professor McCoy’s new Teniopteris, &c., &¢.’—By

* Freperick McCoy, Lsq., F.G.S., Honorary Fellow of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Professor of the
Natural Sciences in the University of Melbourne, Govern-
ment Paleontologist, and Director of the National “Museum.

[Read before the Royal Society, 25th Tine, 1860.]

My great dislike of controversy, and my belief that the time
of a scientific man may be better employed in endeavouring
to add new facts to the general store of human knowledge,
than in defending himself or his views, when once put forward,
would certainly have induced me on this occasion, as on most
similar ones, to let my opponent’s views and mine stand
without discussion for the judgment of those concerned.
Having, however, been honoured with a request—which to
me is a command—to furnish a written comment on Mr.
Clarke’s paper to the Royal Society this evening, I do so
cheerfully ; and the more so as it is just possible that some
members of this Society might feel inclined to attach some
weight to any deliberate statement of mine on natural science,
and not having time to sift the evidence for themselves, might
wish to hear my reply when such statements were contro-
verted.

I will pass over without remark the apparent discourtesy
in the first paragraph, in which (without having seen
the fossil) he doubts my assertion, made at the last.
meeting of the Society, that a fossil fern from the
coal rocks at the mouth of the Bass River belonged
to the genus Teniopteris. I will simply prove my as-
sertion, if not to the satisfaction of Mr. Clarke, certainly
to that of every one else, including one authority at least
(Dr. Mueller), to whom, I believe, he admits the neces-
sity of paying deference in botanical matters, * Mr.
Clarke has been at the pains to copy out, in the con-
cluding part of his paper, the true generic characters of
Teniopteris, as he accepts it, from the works of Brongniart,
Goppert, and of Lindley and Hutton. I was not ig-
norant of these characters, when I referred my fossil to

Mr. Clarke’s Communication, &e. 97

the genus in question at our last meeting; and I now prove
that it possesses all those characters (including the fureation
near the base of some of the secondary nerves, underlined
strongly in Mr. Clarke’s manuscripts), by laying the speci-
men again on the table, for the satisfaction of those present,
and by giving Dr. Mueller’s written testimony* that he had
compared the specimen with Brongniart’s definition, and
finds my previous determination rigidly exact on the strictest
view of the genus—for the satisfaction of those at a distance.

Having now, I hope, satisfactorily vindicated the generic
character of our Victorian Teniopteris, we may consider the
next point in the same paragraph, namely, Mr. Clarke’s pro-
test against those geologists ““who maintain that a formation
“* so abundant in zoological fossils as the jurassic is found here,
** where no one in any part of the Australian continent has ever
** detected one single species, on the strength of the evidence
‘derived from a few (probably not six in all) species of plants,
“the true description of which does not agree in all things with
“the typical characters of the genera under which the species
“are ranked.” On this I would remark—lIst. That the num-
ber of species of plants, described by competent authorities in
English and German books, from the coal beds of Australia is
not six, but twenty-three. All of these are more allied to
oolitic than to paleozoic types, and of five entire genera of
them—viz.: Glossopteris, Teniopteris, Phyllotheca, Zeugo-
phyllites, and Vertebraria—no single species has ever been
found in any undoubted palzozoic coal-field in any part of
the world; while, of the other genera, two species are scarcely
separable by any tangible characters from species of the oolitic
coal-beds of Scarborough. 2nd. The very nature of generic
groups is such that no naturalist expects all the species of a

* (Copy of note from the Government Botanist to Professor McCoy. )

Melbourne Botanical and Zoological Gardens,
2ist June, 1860.
My VERY DEAR SIR—

To so world-famed celebrity amongst paleontological authors as
yourself, it is perfectly superfluous to state that the Victorian fossil deter-
mined by you as an undescribed species of Z'eniopteris, accords fully with
the generie-diagnosis originally published by Brongniart (Prodr. 16); but as
you were particularly desirous that I should compare this new species of the
genus T'eniopteris with recorded definitions, I gladly responded to your
request, and beg to give it as my opinion that I regard the 7’. Daintreei in no
way different from its congeners.

Most regardfully, dear Professor, yours,
(Signed) FEeRD. MUELLER.
Professor McCoy, &e., &e.
A

98 Commentary on

genus “to agree in all things with the typical characters of
the genus ;”—this would require nearly as many genera as
species, and destroy the advantages of the larger groups. The
accepted rule might be roughly exemplified thus: If a genus be
characterised by three positive characters, one of them may
vary in any species which, possessing the other two unaltered,
might be classed with the given genus; but different species
would not necessarily vary in the same character. Apart
from this general illustration, I may observe that the generic
references of the Australian fossil plants have never been
objected to by botanists, and they have all been carefully
made by observers (except myself) of universally acknow-
ledged accuracy. 8rd. As for the objection that the plant
beds cannot be oolitic, because no oolitic animal remains have
been found, there is nothing in it; for at Richmond, in Vir-
ginia, there is a coal-field twenty miles long, with beds of
coal forty feet thick, worked by shafts one thousand feet
deep, the coal-beds, accompanied by layers of fossil plants,
having a strong general resemblance to those of the New
South Wales coal deposits, the whole series being, after de-
liberate survey and examination (amongst others by Sir
Charles Lyell and Professor Rogers), distinctly and unani-
mously referred to the oolite * formation by all the geologists
and palzontologists of America and Europe ; and yet, in the
whole of North America, though more fully examined than
New South Wales by geological surveyors, not a trace has
yet been found of any oolitic zoological fossil.

Mr. Clarke’s next paragraph says, “ The two genera,
“ Teniopteris and Glossopteris (Sagenopteris) have been the
“means of placing, by some geologists, the coal deposits of
< Australia and India in the horizon of the oolitic coal. Now,
‘the latter occurs in five distinct formations in India, as Mr.
“ Oldham informs me, and it also occurs in Africa, where the
“ evidence appears to be against the supposed epoch.” This
paragraph shows that Mr. Clarke has missed some important
links in the chain of reasoning by which I considered the coal
rocks of the Hunter related in geologic age to the oolitic forma-
tion. Lrarely take the liberty,in any paper of mine, of stating

* Very recently the suggestion has been discussed of the ‘‘ Triassic ” age
of these American beds, but the evidence is inconclusive, and at farthest the
trias is as much mesozoic as the oolites, and the discussion in question would
not help Mr. Clarke’s position of his Newcastle plant-beds being of the
Peeleeozoic Carboniferous age of the underlying marine-beds with Trilobites,
nor invalidate my view of their mesozoic character.

Mr. Clarke’s Communication, &c. 99

anything which might be assumed to be known to the reader
from a study of previous writers; and when, in former papers,
I used the identity of the fossil plants of the Indian and Aus-
tralian coal-fields as one step in the comparison of the latter
with the oolites of Europe, I was not simply arguing in a
circle, as Mr. Clarke seems to suppose, but making use of the
knowledge published to geologists for more than twenty years
that in India these coal plants are accompanied by abundance
of ammonites and other marie zoological fossils, having the
clearest relations with the lower oolitic fossils of the clear
sections of Europe. I thus, by a fair philosophic process,
transferred to the Australian beds the whole of the geological
arguments applied to the identical Indian ones from the
association with the latter of those zoological fossils, the ab-
sence of which in Australia, Mr. Clarke attempts to use in a
powerful manner, but for which I just now mdicated an exact
parallel in America. Mr. Clarke, im the above paragraph,
putting the word “ Sagenopteris” in brackets after
“* Glossopteris ”? when speaking of the Indian and Australian
plants, proves that he cannot have read Professor Presl’s
remarks, when founding the genus Sagenopteris, in Sternberg’s
“ Versuch einer Geognostisch-botanischen Darstellung der
Flora der Vorwelt, ” as the very object of establishing the
genus was, by separating some abnormal European forms, to
leave the Indian and Australian plants as the true types of
the genus Glossopteris. Mr. Oldham’s quoted statement of
Glossopteris occuring in five distinct formations in India, is
only intelligible on the supposition that the word “ formation ”
is used—not in the technical sense of geologists, but as synoni-
mous with “bed.”’ The reference to the occurrence of Glossop-
teris in Africa, as supporting the view of the palzezoic coal
age of the genus, is also unhappy, as the researches of Dr.
Rubidge clearly prove that the Glossopteris of Bloemkop, in
South Africa, are only found in the Karoo beds containing
the bones of the Dicynodon.

Mr. Clarke’s next paragraph states :—“ As to Teniopteris,
“so far from determining the age of a formation, Jukes, who
“follows Bronn, assigns the species thus :—

“¢ Carboniferous.... Al

Pavas Oolite 6,
Odlitéite’, eee. al fata
WGPWibny.!S so 5 o's--,6 Eye

100 Commentary on

IT have no doubt Mr. Jukes would be much surprised to
find himself qucted as an authority on Palzontology: he
describes himself, in a note, as ignorant of the sub-
ject ; and the many errors in that part of his book should:
not, therefore, be counted against him. But as the Rev.
Mr. Clarke has undertaken to overwhelm me with this
authority, I suppose I am bound, as a mere matter of
courtesy, to return him a few taps with the same weapon.
Mr. Clarke’s extract above is from p. 875 of Jukes’ Manual,
but if he had read his own authority as far as p. 437, he
would have found a list of the genera of plants dating
their appearance in time from the carboniferous epoch,
and that Teniopteris was not there. If, again, he had
continued his studies of his author to p. 462, he would
have found a list of the plant genera dating from the
Permian, and that Teniopteris was not there. If the
perusal of his book had extended to p. 466, the list of
genera of plants originating in the Trias would have been
found, again without Teniopteris ; and if, finally, he had been so
unhappy as to have read to p. 473, he would have found the
authority of his own choice distinctly marking Teniopteris as
a genus of plants which commenced and ended its existence
with the oolitic or jurassic period. This is probably enough
for the present of this authority; and I will now lay before
the Society a somewhat better list of the distribution of
clearly ascertained species of Teeniopteris (Mr. M‘Lelland’s
two Indian species bemg omitted, as ] have not his report at
hand) :—

Tabular View of the Geological Distribution of the clearly

ascertained Species of the Fossil Genus Teniopteris.

TAENIOPTERIS.
None from
the Coal.
3 P. abnormis (Gutbier) Rotheliegende, Planitz ;
Dees as
‘{P. Eckhardi (Germ.) Copper Slate; Mansfeld.
2. Tr. marantacea (Stern.) Keuper ; Stuttgardt.

Keuper. |_Tr. Schenleint (Ettingsh.) ; Keuper.

Mr. Clarke’s Communication, &c. 101

obovata (F. Braun.) ; Lias.
vittata (Brong.) Lias and Oolite ; Whitby.
Zoebingiana (Ettingsh.) ; Weald.

ovalis (Presl.) Oolite ; Scarborough.

major (Lindley and H.) Oolite ; Yorkshire.
magnifolia (Rogers.) Oolite coal-field ; Vir-

_
on

ginia.
Asplenioides (Eittingsh.) ; Lias.

Miinsteri (Goppert) ; Lias.

Haidingeri (Ettingsh.) ; Lias.

Scitaminea (Presl.) ; Stonesfield Slate.
latifolia (Brong.) ; Stonesfield Slate.
Daneoides (Royle sp.) ; Burdwan coal beds.
Phillipst (Presl.) Oolites ; Yorkshire.
Nillsoniana(Brong.) Jurassic beds ; Coburg.

2. ‘oS Bertrandi (Brong.) Tertiary ; Lombardy.
Tertiary. |'T. Ungeri (Ettingshauser) ; Tertiary.

Oolite.

SS

99999999 o90006

oo

No trace of Teniopteris has ever been found in a paleozoic
coal bed: the erroneous carboniferous citations In many
books of this genus—like those of Glossopteris—referring to
the occurrences in the Indian mesozoic coal-fields. Two doubt-
ful species are Permian, 2 upper Triassic, 14 highly typical
forms Oolitic, and 2 Tertiary. The evidence from known
species is therefore overwhelmingly in favor of any rock
containing a typical Teniopteris being oolitic, and decisively
against its belonging to the palzeozoic coal epoch, supported
by My. Clarke.

In his next paragraph Mr. Clarke says: —“ When we come
“‘to Yorkshire, which is one of the references, we find in
* Phillips no figure of any species of Teniopteris.’ At our
last meeting I stated that the new Teniopteris Daintreet was
most nearly allied to the 7. vittata (Brong.) of the Whitby
oolitic shales figured in Phillips’ Geology of Yorkshire, t. 8,
f.5. Ihave the figure referred to under my eyes, and now
lay it on the table for the inspection of members. As Mr.
Clarke, however, denies its existence, there is no more to be
said on the matter. The next part of this paragraph, and
portions of several subsequent ones, are taken up with some
involved confusions about the genus Aspidites of Godppert.
In brief, this is so unnatural a group (formed of portions of
various genera of various ages), that it has been unanimously
rejected by all more modern writers ; and Mr, Clarke’s or

102 Commentary on

Goppert’s references of Teniopteris thereto is against the
sense of Ettingshauser, Morris, Bunbury, and all the other
highest living authorities on fossil plants. This paragraph
concludes with a statement that it is unphilosophical for me
to assign an epoch to the Australian coal without styrati-
graphical evidence, and on the indication of plant genera,
“referable to more than the assumed epoch.”’ To which I
reply that all the known stratigraphical evidence is im my
favor, and that the plant genera are all admitted as belonging
to the mesozoic epoch for which I contend ; but they do not
belong to the epoch for which Mr. Clarke contends, and that
seems just the difference between our positions—that all the
evidence, as far as it goes, isin my favor, but wherever of a
distinctive nature, 1s against my opponent.

The next paragraph of Mr. Clarke’s paper commences
with a notice of the reasons which induced Morris,
Strzelecki, and myself to form our opimions on the age of
the coal and underlying formations in New South Wales
and ‘Tasmania, which, I consider, gives so imperfect a
view of the question, that I must state it differently: —About
twelve years ago I examined critically a very large collection
of fossils sent to England from these rocks, by Mr. Clarke,
and formed an opinion on the age of their formation, from
such data, different from that to which Mr. Clarke had
pledged himself before the necessary data for forming an
opinion had been examined. ‘The reasons for my conclu-
sions I will briefly quote from the concluding part of a
paper I published on the subject eleven years ago, in the
Annals and Magazine of Natural History :—

“In the above notice” (I state after describing the fossils)
‘““T have given eighteen species of fossil plant from the Mulu-
“‘bimba district, which is a portion of the great Newcastle
“and Hawkesbury basin, twelve of which are considered new,
«« Those plants belong to ten genera, two of which— Vertebraria
*“ and Zeugophyllites—are only known here and in the supposed
“‘ oolitic coal-fields of India; one genus (Gleichenites) I have
“ provisionally used for the Pecopteris odontopteroides of Morris,
‘from the verbal characters given by Goppert for that genus,
“the species of which are found only in the palzozoic coal ;
“‘ the plant, however, agrees much better with the species of the
“ Keuper genus Heptacarpus than with those of the carboni-
““ferous Gleichenites ; and if we look rather to the plants them-
‘selves than to the definitions given of the genera, I should
‘certainly place it there. All the other genera (with the

Mr. Clarke’s Communication, &c. 103

a

“ exception of Phyllotheca*, which is confined to the locality)
“are well known in the oolitic coal deposits of Yorkshire, and
“one species, the Sphenopteris germana (McCoy) is scarcely to
“be distinguished from the common Pecopteris Murrayana
*« (Br) of the Scarborough shales. Several of these genera
“are common both to the carboniferous and oolitic periods ;
“but the most abundant and characteristic plants of the
“ Australian beds belong to a genus (Glossopteris) never found
‘in the old coal-fields, but several species of which are, on the
“other hand, well known in coal-beds of the oolitic age in
“various parts of the world. I am, therefore, strongly of
“ opinion, from the evidence of more than double the number
“of species of plants known before, that the coal deposits of
“ Australia should be referred to the oolitic period ; and this
“opinion derives much additional weight from the negative
“fact that, among the large quantity of remains of plants
“which I have examined from this district, not a trace has
“heen observed of any of the characteristic carboniferous
“ senera—not a trace of Lepidodendronor any allied plant—not
“a trace of Sigillaria, Favularia, Stigmaria, or even of true
“ Calamites. I might further add, that the list of plants I have
“ given destroys anynegative arguments formerly based on the
“ fossil evidence for considering the Jerusalem coal basin to be
“ of a different age from the Newcastle one, as I have detected
“the most characteristic plants of the former abundantly in
“the latter beds, so that the fossil evidence now would go with
“the admitted identity of the walls of the basins, and the
“ seneral analogy of the sections to prove them all of one age.

“In the underlying rocks I have been able to determime
* 83 species of animal remains, of which 14 are Zoophyta, 3
“ Criniodea, 4 Crustacea, 25 Brachiopoda,24.Lamellibranchiata,
“6 Gasteropoda, 4 Pteropoda, and 3 Cephalopoda (including
“ Bellerophon) ; of these, 4 genera and 32 species are figured
“and described as new. These 83 species belong to 39 genera,
* allof which (withthe exception of the genera Tribrachyocrinus,
“ Pachydomus, Notomya, and Eurydesma—new forms—at
“present only known in Australia) are abundant in the carbo-
* niferous rocks of Britain, many of them not being found in
“any higher series, and several of them not being known in
“ any older deposits, so that the age, even if we only look to the
« genera of the fossils, is clearly limited to the carboniferous
“period ; but when we descend to the critical examination of

* Phyllotheca has, since the Paper was read, heen also discovered in the
Oolitic Sections of Europe by de Zigno,

104: Commentary on

f species, we find so extraordinary and unexpected an amount
“of agreement between these beds and the similar shales,
“* sandstones, and impure limestones forming the base of the
“‘ carboniferous system in Ireland, that it is impossible not to
“ believe them to be nearly on the same parallel; and there is
“‘ equal difficulty in imagining them to be either younger or
‘older than those deposits. Of those species no less than 11
“are believed to be positively identical, on the most careful
“comparison of the Australian and Ivish specimens; and nine
“more are so Closely allied that it has been found impossible
“to detect any difference of character, as, either from
“imperfect preservation or want of sufficient specimens to
“ display, all the characters have not been specifically iden-
“tified. With such evidence as I have mentioned, I do not
“think it improbable that a wide geological interval occurred
“between the consolidation of the fossiliferous beds which
“underlie the coal, and the deposition of the coal measures
“themselves; that there is no real connection between them,
“but that they belong to widely different geological systems,
*‘ the former referable to the base of the carboniferous system,
“the latter to the oolitic, and neither showing the slightest
“tendency to a confusion of type.”

Since the above was written, Mr. Dana, who in 1839
published his observations, with the American Exploration
Expedition, visited the localities, and got several more
fossils, without causing any alteration in-the above views;
and a few years ago Mr. Selwyn, the director of the Victorian
Geological Survey, made an official survey of the Tasmanian
coal-fields, in which Count Strzelecki thought the clays con-
taining large shells of the genus Pachydomus, such as are
found under the coal-beds at Newcastle, seemed doubtfully to
overlie the coal-beds of Tasmania, which would thus be
proved to be of the same age as the underlying palzozoic
shell-beds. Mr. Selwyn found the Pachydomus beds, how-
ever, all in their true normal position, wnder the coal
everywhere in Tasmania as in New South Wales, thus
clearing away the only even doubtfully suggested strati-
graphical objection to my views. It may also be satisfactory
for me to state that all the information I have been able to
acquire, for the last twelve years, bearing on the question, and
derived from N.S. Wales, Victoria, or Tasmania, stratigraphi-
cal as well as paleontological, tends to confirm my original
impression abtte quoted, and that I know of no fact invalida-
ting it, or which, in fairness, I could state on the other side.

Mr. Clarke’s Communication, &c. 105

I now, with much reluctance, approach the most disagree-
able part of my task. On the publication of my results, as
above quoted, Mr. Clarke, as he states in the paragraph of
his paper we have now reached, wrote to the English jour-
nals, asking geologists to suspend their judgment—the point
going against him; and, shortly after, he wrote to a leading
geologist and mutual friend, to this effect: “Mr. McCoy’s
“most powerful argument against my view of the palzozoic
“age of our Newcastle coal-beds, is founded on the supposed
‘* absence of all the characteristic genera of true coal-measure
‘plants. I should like to have his opinion of the enclosed fossil,
“ which I think will satisfy him.’”? My opinion on the fossil
enclosed was, that it was a distinct species of one of the
sections of Lepidodendron, clearly indicative of the true
palzeozoic coal epoch ; to which I added the reasons for my
equally strong opinion that it never came from the beds
we were arguing about. Every one who saw Mr. Clarke’s
letter thought it impossible to doubt his meaning, that
the fossil he sent to upset my objection that no coal-
measure plants had been seen in certain beds, came from
those beds; as I was positive, however, the pointed ques-
tions were put to hin—“ Did you find the specimen your-
“self, and did it come from the actual beds which afforded the
“other plants on which the dispute turns?” The tardy
admissions were thus extracted from him :—That the
specimen of Lepidodendron had been given him by an
unscientific friend, and came from a geologically un-
known locality far to the north, in the country now
called Queensland; so, that instead of invalidating my
conclusions, my views were strengthened by the proof,
that the paleeozoic and oolitic coal formations might be
found near together in Australia (as in England and
America), each with characteristic distinctive paleontology;
and here, as in Virginia, the vague baseless supposition
(revived in the present communication of Mr. Clarke), that
the geographical distance from the European types might
have caused the paleeozoic formations to assume the paleon-
tological characters of the oolitic ones, falls to the ground
as unsupported by new facts, as by induction from the old
ones. Mr. Clarke, in his present communication, says :—
“Others besides myself have found some of the missing true
“‘ coal-plants, and lamnowinapositionto point outsix localities
*‘in this colony and in Queensland where they are to be
“found,” On which I remark, that they are not, however,

106 Commentary on

found in the beds in dispute, nor mixed with the plants to
which I have assigned a mesozoic age, as any reader of Mr.
Clarke’s paper would be in danger of taking for granted.
As to the specimen he alludes to in the Melbourne Museum,
the Government Geologist can testify that, on first seeing it,
some years ago, in a store in Melbourne, I at once charac-
terised it to him as the most important paleontological
specimen ever found in the colony, as it proved the existence
of the true paleozoic coal formation in Gipps Land; and, I
further told him, it was of the same species as a fragment
sent many years ago from the Moreton Bay district by Mr.
Clarke, and the specimen was distinctly pointed out to Mr.
Clarke, when he visited the Museum, as one likely to interest
him.

In his next paragraph Mr. Clarke says, “ He was slow in
“admitting what I stated to him in February last, that now
“we have found in New South Wales coal seams in the very

heart of his mountain limestone fossils, and that plants known
“in the Newcastle beds, which he calls oolitic, were found at
“the very bottom of the whole series of these newly opened
“beds, containing the M. L. fossils.” The facts of the case
are these, and can be vouched by the Government Geolo-
gist.* Mr. Selwyn brought me, at the date mentioned,
a fragment of shale with the Newcastle species of
plants, which he said Mr. Clarke had brought from
the bottom of a coal-pit, the sides of which gave a clear
section, showing the marine carboniferous fossils at a certain
distance from the surface less than the depth from which
the plants came, so that he supposed the matter in dispute
was finally decided. I asked him if Mr. Clarke had himself
got the specimen, and could himself vouch for the existence
of a bed containing such plants below the bed of marine
zoological fossils. Mr. Selwyn had no doubt that the
words and sketches of Mr. Clarke clearly and un-
mistakeably conveyed the impression that he had.
To Mr. Selwyn’s astonishment, however, it turned
out, on my pressing Mr. Clarke, who then joimed us,
that he had never been at the spot; that the bit of stone had
been brought up by one of the workpeople from the bottom
of the pit, sunk through the coal beds, intercalated with shales
containing the Newcastle species of plants into the under-
lying marine beds; that there was no evidence whatever of a

*Mr. Selwyn, the Government Geologist, was present when the above
paper was read, and confirmed the references made to him,

Mr. Clarke’s Communication, &c. 107

bed containing the plants at the bottom of the pit, but that
such specimens as had been made use of as a geological
argument might tumble in from the coal beds in the upper
part of the pit, and fall to the lower part, composed of the
mountain limestone beds, every hour of the day ; and might
be brought up, like any other extraneous matter, in the way
in which the fragment in question had. Mr. Clarke’s final
phrase, in answer to some remonstrance of Mr. Selwyn,
who found the arguments which he had accepted in
the morning entirely without foundation, being his often re-
peated one, “that nevertheless he was quite satisfied they were
all of one age.”” This phrase Mr. Clarke continually used in
writing to English geologists on the evidence afforded by his
stratigraphical sections, until at my suggestion pushed to
give an accurate representation of any actual case in point,
instead of vague assertions, when it proved that he had not a
single section in support of his view, and even up to
February last he had not been able to find one either m New
South Wales, Victoria, or Tasmania.

As to the Bacchus Marsh and Darley sandstones, I have
not yet seen perfectly decisive specimens from them of the
Glossopteris, but there are abundance of frondsof anew genus*,
to which belongs the plant I have figured from the New
South Wales coal beds under the name of Cyclopteris(?)
angustifolia, which occurs there, as well as in India, with
the Glossopteris, and has exactly the same _ geological
significance as the Glossopteris for the Bacchus Marsh
sandstones, in which the C. (?) angustifolia is distinctly
present.

In conclusion, I feel that some apology is due to the Society
for occupying so much time, but at the same time [
would remind the members that I said all I had got
to say on the discovery of the Teniopteris Daintreet, and
its geological significance, which I considered worth saying,
in less than five minutes at our last meeting; to which I will
add, that I shall be the first to communicate to the public,
through the Society, any fact which may hereafter come to
my knowledge tending to weaken the views I hold, and
which I have been defending simply from a sincere belief
in their accordance with truth.

* This genus I have called Gangamopteris, the chief characters being
those referred to in my old paper quoted above, as senatating the plants in
question from Glossopteris on the one hand, and from Cyclopteris on the
other. :

108 The Conjugal Condition

Art. IV.—The Conjugal Condition of the People of Victoria,
considered in relation to Laws of Divorce.

[Read before the Royal Society, 16th July, 1860. ]

A CONSEQUENCE of progress in speculative science, and one
which shows how circumscribed are the views of the most in-
genious—by how little any man can outstrip his generation
—is that new investigations in one direction lead to the re-
opening of inquiry in others. Matters which, it might be
supposed, had long since been viewed in every possible light,
and thoroughly exhausted, are rendered capable of being pre-
sented in novel aspects, or in connexion with associations not
previously noticed, calling upon us to review conclusions, and
subject them to new tests. Thus inquiry into the economical
condition of nations, though its object 1s material, mevitably
turns upon the moral and psychological, because it is found
‘that the production of wealth is powerfully affected by insti-
tutions, habits, customs, and even by the principles of human
nature variously developed. Social science, which is so
rapidly rising to importance, may be said to have arisen out
of this connexion. Not merely from the sentiment of be-
nevolence does the social economist propose to enlighten the
ignorant, but because the more gentle any man is, the better
producer of wealth he is found to be; and because it is be-
lieved that ignorance is productive of poverty and crime,
which in their turn are burdensome and oppressive; not
from the instinct of a charitable heart is he prompted to
improve the habitations of the poor, to cleanse the haunts of
vice, and to let the sun into the gloomy dwellings of the
miserable, but because disease impoverishes the community,
by disabling the strong arm of him who had heretofore kept
a wife from the workhouse, and children from the corrupting
patronage of the receivers of stolen goods; because premature
death deprives society of many of its most valuable contributors
to industrial progress before they have discharged the cost of
bringing them to man’s estate. So long as it was supposed
that learning made the poor man discontented, and unfit
for daily toil, or so long as it was supposed that death
removed consumers rather than producers, so long were

of the People of Victoria. 109

schools for the poor, athenzeums, and mechanics’ institutes
looked wpon with coldness, and hospitals left to the care of
the religious and tender-hearted. What the charitable and
sympathising did for the sake of the poor sufferer—for the
individual—the social economist proposes to do for the good
of society at large.

To the recognition of the fact that many of the phenomena
observable in the comparatively unequal distribution of riches
amongst the population of different countries, or in the same
country at different periods, are attributable to their pecu-
liar institutions and usages, are we indebted for the more
extended statistical inquiries which have of late years been
made, and amongst others for that relating to the Conjugal
Condition of nations ; and by the results which are obtained in
the latter investigation, or, more correctly speaking, by viewing
these results statistically, we are led into a series of reflec-
tions, and brought to draw deductions which would scarcely
occur to our minds, if we were insensible to these relations.
It is true that we do not require statistical facts to perceive
the immense consequences of monogamy as compared with
polygamy, or to understand that they could scarcely exist
under similar political systems. The most careless thinker»
must at a glance perceive the vastness of the difference between
a system which makes one half of a population little better
than the slaves of the other half, and one which aims at
making woman the social equal and partner of man, interested
in his fortunes, the manager of his household, and the principal
instructor and moral trainer of his children. Neither are
any figures requisite to impress upon the mind the prodigious
social change which would result from such a relation of the
sexes as would follow the adoption of the principle of a
Rousseau, who would throw the support and instruction of
the child upon the State; supplanting by the foundling hos-
pital the family, or self government localized to the minutest
degree ; abolishing at once both parental and filial ties and
duties; educating the children of a country by one rule
common to all, through the hard instrumentality of salaried
masters and matrons, rigid disciplinarians, on whose part
manifestations of affection would be partiality and weakness ;
replacing individuality by uniformity of character, and taking
from the parent the inspiriting desire of transmitting his name,
wealth, and honours to successors, and removing the necessity
of even working for them. When we recollect that from his
instructors a man has obtained little more than precepts, but

110 The Conjugal Condition

that those qualities which are, as it were, engrafted into his
soul, and which, form his character, are derived from those in
whose company he constantly is; and, therefore, in most
instances from his family, we can guess at the magnitude of
the revolution which would follow from the overthrow of our
present system by the substitution of one so different. But
when we look more minutely into the matter, we perceive
that monogamy admits of variations, productive of very serious
consequences, some of which are not far short of those which
would flow from the extremes referred to. For example, the
law may allow a man to have but one legal wife, but never-
theless it may sanction what in effect would amount in
practice to polygamy ; or it may, while confining the man to
one wife at a time, admit of an unlimited number in suc-
cession, by giving the husband the power to divorce on the
lightest grounds, as became the usage in Rome in the latter
period of the Republic, and during the Empire; a usage, it
may be remarked, to which probably more than to any other
circumstance, may be attributed that decline in the population
of central Italy, which ultimately led to the removal of the
seat of Government to the shores of the Bosphorus—the
virtual extinction of the Empire of Rome.

Of the mischievous consequences of too great a laxity of
the marriage contract, Augustus was conscious, and attempted
a return towards that system under which a small colony
grew into a colonizing empire ; but, as we.are informed by
Gibbon, “once, and once only, he experienced a sincere and ~
strenuous opposition. His subjects had resigned all political
liberty ; they defended the freedom of domestic life. A law
which enforced the obligation and strengthened the bonds of
marriage, was clamorously rejected. Propertius,im the arms
of Delia, applauded the victory of licentious love, and the
project of reform was suspended till a new and more tract-
able generation had arisen in the world.”*

The measure referred to in this passage was the Lea Julia
and Papia Poppea, designed to discourage celibacy, and en-
courage marriage, with a view to the promotion of population;
and may have done what all the legions on the Rhine and the
Danube failed to do—protected Italy from the iron heel of
the barbarian. Unfortunately, however, the efforts to set
limitations to the liberty of divorce signally failed, so much

* Gibbon, Chapter xliv.

of the People of Victoria. 111

so that ‘‘ Jerome saw at Rome (a.p. 321 to 340) a triumphant
husband bury his twenty-first wife;*” and so infatuated were
these unhappy people in their desire for licentious indulgence,
that the successor of Justinian had, we are told, to yield to
the prayers of his unhappy subjects, and restore the liberty of
divorce by mutual consent.+.

To a state of things pregnant with so many evils, and which
irretrievably weakened the vast domains of the Czesars, Eng-
land appeared to be verging from the times of Charles II.;
but fortunately the effects of licentiousness were felt at a
period when a legislative remedy was practicable, and the
eloquence of a Fox, specious but unsound, failed to overthrow
a measure} which divested the marriage ceremony of the dis-
graceful associations which are attendant more or less upon
all that is clandestine—lifting it from a mere verbal promise
that might be denied to suit convenience, faithlessness, or
caprice, into a solemn public contract. To this reform we
cannot refuse to attribute a great improvement in the charac-
ter of parents. It was, as it were, a restoration of “the
family’”’—a term to the Anglo-Saxon mind fraught with
meaning—and the health, education, and career of the child
became more and more an object of solicitude to parents,
more united, more interested in each other’s welfare, and
more virtuous. The quiet enjoyment of the domestic circle
succeeded to the gin-palace, the gambling table, and the
“assembly room,” where the woman, half wife, half mistress,
endeavoured to secure her hold upon a capricious lover by
blandishments and intrigue. Sober industry and thrift suc-
ceeded to habits wasteful of time, exhaustive of energies, and
prodigal of earnings; and a smaller number of illegitimate
children—illegitimate, perhaps, only by the father having
broken his plighted faith— became a burden upon society,
to add in their turn to the evils of a community to which they
were bound by no tie, with which in fact their position made
them at war.

But the power of the legislator to affect the social, moral,
and material circumstances of the governed, through the
institution of marriage, is not confined to the broad principles
of measures. The minutest details are not without their
influence. For instance, a law such as that of the Twelve

* Gibbon, note, Chapter xliv. + Gibbon, Chapter xliv.
t Lord Hardwicke’s Act, 1753.

112 The Conjugal Condition

Tables, by which a woman who lived for one year without in-
terruption with a man as his wife, became a wife, though, at
first thought, it might seem just in principle, must evidently
have the effect of making such associations less disreputable,
lowering the standard of female morality, and leading to the
formation of illicit ties in the hope of their terminating in
honesty. The same remark applies to laws such as those of
Scotland, by which a marriage is held to be legally contracted
merely “by habit and repute ;”’ and, though to a less ex-
tent, it holds good in reference to an enactment by which
children born out of wedlock are legitimized by subsequent
marriage. Seduction, concubmage and bigamy are facili-
tated, if not actually encouraged, by such regulations ; and
libertinage, with its inevitable concomitant, celibacy, are
adverse to the growth of population as well as to moral
advancement. To the laws of marriage which obtain in Seot-
land must, in part, if not entirely, be ascribed the fact that so
much smaller a proportion of the population of that country
are living in the marriage state than is the case in England and
Wales. Thus, while in the latter country 59 in every 100
women aged 20 and upwards are returned as wives, but 49 in |
every 100 of the same age in Scotland are married, that
is, one-sixth less — an immense difference for contiguous
parts of the same kingdom. The difference in the conjugal
condition of England and Scotland, or, to express it in
another form, the effect of the disparity in the proportion
living in a state of celibacy, namely as 30 males (England
and Wales) to 35 (Scotland), is manifested in the unequal rate
of increase of the population north and south of the Tweed*.
While on the subject of celibacy, which, it is to be recol-
lected, is increased by the late age at which people marry, as
well as by their not marrying at all, 1t may be remarked that
another of the many ways in which marriage iaws may act
upon population, and upon the morals of the people, is by
advancing the age of majority. This in France is four years
later than in England, and has no doubt much retarded the
progress of population in that country, and moreover in all
probability has proved a potent agent in producing that state
of things of which so saddening a picture is presented by
Michelet and others; the great multitude of young women in
France, who are a prey to poverty and drudgery, struggling

* Since 1801 the population of Scotland has increased but 74 per cent.,
while that of England and Wales has increased 97 per cent.

of the People of Victoria. 113

to maintain the dignity of their sex, in an isolation not con-
sonant with humannature. For, be it remembered, the later
in life men marry, the greater, as a general rule, is the dis-
parity between the ages of man and wife; and the greater
the comparative youthfulness of the wives, the greater the
number of females who never can be married, who sink into
the grave victims of hard work or despondency, and but too
often of vice.

There is no detail in any law so trifling as to be without a
result, though we may not immediately be able to trace it;
and no change can be made in so surpassingly important an
institution as that of marriage, without operating upon the
social, moral, and material condition of the people.

Having said so much of the importance of a thorough com-
prehension of all that is directly and collaterally involved in
laws of marriage and divorce, and of the recurring circum-
stances which tend to revive the interest, and justify the re-
investigation cf subjects so often and so ably discussed, the
peculiar situation of our own colony may fitly be entered upon.

Attention has been directed to the fact, that in tracing up
the causes which influence the progress of population, in
examining the varied relations of the sexes in different
places, and in devising those changes in the laws of marriage
and divorce which are rendered necessary by alterations in
the circumstances of the people, a knowledge of their con-
jugal condition has of late years been esteemed of the highest
importance; and it may be added that, if such be the case in
older and more settled nations, it ought to be much more so
in a country where the population is so small in proportion to
the extent and capabilities of the territory, and where so
remarkable a sexual disparity occurs. Indeed, it may safely
be alleged, that when these and similar questions are under
consideration, our conjugal condition should be kept con-
stantly in view; inasmuch as our statistics disclose a state of
things more startling in many respects than may have been
anticipated, and ranging very widely from the normal condition
of nations, as may be seen by a comparison of the figures
exhibiting our condition with the corresponding ones for
Great Britain, a country which may be taken as presenting
a very near approach to the natural order of things.

Great Britain, at the time of the census of 1851, contained
3,991,271 husbands, 3,461,524 wives, 382,969 widowers,
795,590 widows, and the bachelors and spinsters, taking
persons of the age of 20 years and upwards, amounted to

I

114 The Conjugal Condition

1,689,116 and 1,767,194 respectively. The corresponding
numbers to these in Victoria* are 70,051 husbands, 61,955
wives, 5,147 widowers, and 3,966 widows, 88,355 bachelors,
and 12,545 spinsters, both of the age of 20 years and upwards.

The figures which are representative of the two countries
are, therefore, most dissimilar. In Great Britain there are
more married women than married men; in this colony the
married men are morenumerous, outnumbering the wives in the
proportion of 118 +0100. In the former-mentioned country,
the widows are more than double the number of widowers ;
while in the latter, there are nearly 1380 widowers for every
100 widows. In Great Britain the bachelors are only half as
numerous as the married men, whereas in Victoria there are
126 bachelors of the age of 20 and upwards for every 100
husbands. But the greatest disparity is in the proportion of
spinsters to bachelors. In Great Britain, the unmarried
women are in excess of the unmarried men; but in this
colony the figures given above show that, comparing equal
ages, there are rather more than seven bachelors for every
spinster —the excess of the former being no less than 75,810.
But even viewing our circumstances in this respect in a less
unfavourable light, and contrasting the number of bachelors
who have attained the age of majority, with the number of
unmarried females of the age of fifteen years and upwards,
we find the excess to be 61,859—that there are but 22,082
of the latter to 83,941 of the former. Thus, if our social
habits were to be subjected to such a disorganisation as
would result from all those females who are performing the
duties of daughter, sister, housekeeper, domestic or fram
servant, and similar indispensable offices, abandoning their
positions and entering into the married state, only 26 per
cent. of the bachelors would be provided with wives, leaving
74 out of every 100 of them, besides the greater part of the
5147 widowers, who would find it impossible to obtain wives
within the colony.

From the foregoing statement it will be perceived that the
effective disparity of the numbers of the two sexest in this
country is but feebly conveyed by a comparison of the gross
numbers of males and females of all ages, because the juvenile
population under the age of sixteen years, which forms 31

* In all the figures respecting Victoria in these pages the Chinese are
excluded.
+ 160 males for 100 females.

of the People of Victoria. 115

per cent. of the inhabitants, presents no sexual disproportion
of any consequence*; and that even a comparison of the
adults of either sex, though the disparity in that case is as
2 to 1, does not enable us to realise to the full extent the
unsatisfactoriness of our position. It is by examining our
situation in a conjugal point of view that we become
thoroughly impressed with the deficiency of adult females as
compared with the wants of the colony, and learn how very
small a proportion of them is suffered to remain unmarried.

In Victoria the unmarried women of the age of twenty and
upwards are to the married women of all ages only in the
proportion of 1 to 5; in Great Britain the proportion is as
1 to 2. This difference between the circumstances of the
two countries is undoubtedly, to a great extent, owing to the
eagerness with which the hands of young women are sought
in marriage in this colony; and the evidence which our
census tables present on this point would apparently warrant
the conclusion, that if social circumstances less intervened to
retard the intercourse of the unmarried of the two sexes, the
number of spinsters would bear even a much smaller pro-
portion to the number of married women than it does. In
support of this position, the returns furnish two-fold evidence,
namely, the difficulty which the men experience in obtaiming
wives, and the comparative ease with which the young women
obtaim husbands. Of this the following facts are sufficiently
illustrative.

In Victoria the proportions of married among the popu-
lation of the age of twenty and upwards are, in the males 42
in 100, and in the females 78 in 100; while in Great Britain
the proportions are 62 in 100 males, and 57 in 100 females.

At the age-period of twenty to forty, the proportion of
married in this colony is 38 in 100 males, and 78 in 100
females. The proportional numbers corresponding with these
are, in Great Britain 52 in 100 males, and 55 in 100 females.

At the age-period of forty to sixty, the proportionsof married
here are 61 in 100 males, and 81 in 100 females; and in
England, Wales, and Scotland the proportion is 79 im 100
men, and 70 in 100 women.

The inferences to be drawn from. these figures, so far

* Excluding Chinese and Aborigines, the number of males were 237,743
and of females 145,925. The numbers under 16 years of age were, male,
60,552, and females 59,614 ; and the numbers of the age of 16 and upwards
were, males 177,191, and females 86,311.

£2

116 The Conjugal Condition

as the men are concerned, are that, but for the great difficulty
of procuring wives, there would at the respective ages indicated
be 62 married instead of 42, 52 instead of 38, and 79
instead of 61; and that, but for the unusually favorable posi-
tion in which the women are placed, there would be but 57
and 55 of them married where there are 78, and only 70
where there are 81. It may further be added that, as
regards the men, these figures cannot be considered as fully
representing their difficulty in procuring wives, when the
fact is taken into account that the laboring population of
Victoria is better circumstanced, so far as the ability to sup-
port a family is concerned, than the mass of the inhabitants
of almost any other country ; and it is a universally recog-
nised principle, that in all old countries pressure of population
against the means of subsistence acts as a check upon mar-
riage, or causes a very large number to postpone the age at
which they would, under less unfavorable circumstances, marry.

Pursuing further the facts illustrative of the deficiency of
adult females, as compared with the demand for wives, we
find that while the British census returns show that of the
whole number of females of the age of fifteen to twenty but
24 per cent. are married, the inducements to early marriage,
as regards our female population, are such that there are over
164 per cent. married at that age. Of the number of females
living at the age-period twenty to twenty-five, the proportion
married in Great Britain is but 30 per cent., while in Vic-
toria it is nearly 68 per cent. At the next period (twenty-
five to thirty) there are 82 per cent. married in Victoria, and
57 per cent. only in Great Britam. At the age-period thirty
to thirty-five the proportion in Great Britain rises to 70, and
in this country is 88. So much for the proportions of the
married,

As regards the proportions of the unmarried at different
periods of age, these are, of course, the inverse of the
married. Of the male population at the age twenty to forty,
there are 60 in 100 unmarried in Victoria, and only 46 in
100 are unmarried in Great Britain; at the period forty to
sixty there are 30 unmarried here, and 12 there. Of the
female population the proportion in this colony of the un-
married at the age twenty to forty is only 19 per cent., and is
in Great Britain 42 per cent. Of the age forty to sixty there
are little more than 4 in 100 unmarried in Victoria, against
14 in 100 in Great Britain. ;

Such are the leading features of the difference between the

of the People of Victoria. EY

average conjugal condition of this colony and that of Great
Britain ; but it is not merely the average of a country which
is to be taken into account in cases of this kind. Where
social defects or difficulties have to be considered in legis-
lation, provision has, if possible, to be made for all cases, for
the worst as for the best. It is for this purpose that statis-
tical information in detail for every political and municipal
division of a country is desirable; and a great deal of all
legislation, though it ostensibly has a general application to
a whole country, is really designed to apply only to certain
parts of it. Many enactments, though law as regards a
whole territory, are practically nullities throughout the
greater portion of it—being designed to meet cases which
arise only amongst certain classes, or in certain branches of
industry.

Passing, accordingly, from the average to the special, we
find on examining the conjugal condition of the population
in yarious localities, or rather of the principal industrial
classes into which the inhabitants of Victoria have deter-
mined, that there is here a greater variety in this particular
than is to be found in older countries, and that the picture
presented by the colony in the aggregate is, though bad,
much less unfavorable than that offered by portions of it.
This remark, though applicable in a high degree to those
parts where pastoral pursuits are prevalent, is intended to
apply particularly to the mining population, whose circum-
stances are more deserving of attention, because this class
is more numerous than either the manufacturing and
trading, or the agricultural sections of the community, form-
ing, as it does, 38 per cent. of the population of European
origin.

Turning, in the first instance, to the circumstances of the
male population of the age of twenty years and upwards, we
perceive that while the proportion of husbands in the rural
districts nearly corresponds with the average of the colony,
being 42 in 100, and that while the proportion in the seaport
towns—57 in 100—does not vary much from that prevalent
in Great Britain—62 in 100—the husbands form but 35 in
100 on the gold-fields. Moreover, the excess in the number
of married men above married women there, which amounts to
6,072, shows that no less than 22 per cent.* of this small pro-

* The total number of husbands was 27,632; and deducting those who
could have had no wives with them, the balance left was 21,560,

118 The Conjugal Condition

portion of husbands are absentees from their homes, a
circumstance, be it noted, of great moment in relation to
divorce, reducing the proportion of the adult male population
who are living in the married state to about 28 in 100, or
less than half the proportion of Great Britain

As regards the unmarried of the male population, aged
twenty and upwards, we find that the proportion on the gold-
fields amounts to 61 im every 100, while the proportion
among the seaport towns’ population is but 89im 100. In
Great Britain only 31 in 100 are bachelors. Supposing the
ability to marry, so far as affected by the wages of labor, to
be the same throughout the colony, and assuming the inclina-
tion towards the formation of domestic ties to be the same
on the gold-field as in the seaport town, we cannot fail to
see much privation in the great disparity between the figures
61 and 39, which represent the relative circumstances of
these two sections of our population in this most important
respect.

Passing to the comparative position of the females on the
gold fields, we find that, of women aged twenty and upwards
there is a difference of 16 per cent. between the proportions
of the married there and in the seaport towns; the propor-
tion in the former rising to the high degree of 87 im every
100, or 9 higher than the average of the colony* ; and being
in the latter 71 in every 100, or 7 lower than the average of
the colony. The relative numbers of women living in the
married state on the gold-fields of Victoria and in Great
Britaint, therefore, present the enormous disparity of 30 im
every 100.

Referring to the proportions of the unmarried females, it
appears that of every 100 women of the age of twenty and
upwards, on the gold-fields, but 9 are spinsters. This propor-
tion is to the average of the colony as 9 to 16; to the average
of the seaport towns as 9 to 21; and to the average of Great
Britain as 9 to 29%.

The insufficiency, in a conjugal point of view, of the num-
ber of adult females on the gold-fields, is manifested by the

early marriage of those residing there. Of 2,828 women
belonging to ‘the age-period fifteen to twenty, no less than

* Namely, 78 in 100.

+ The proportion in Great Britain is 57 in 100.

{ The proportions are—in the colony, 16 in 100; in seaport eae 21 in
100; in Great Britain, 29 in 100. ’

of the People of Victoria. 119

851 had entered into the married state. There are, there-
fore, more than 30 per cent. of the entire number of women
livmg on the gold-fields of the age of fifteen and under
twenty, either wives or widows. This proportion is nearly
twice as high as the average for the entire colony, and is to
the ratio for Great Britain as 12 to 1.

As regards the numerical deficiency of females on the
gold-fields, there were at the period of the last census, 46,144.
bachelors, aged twenty-one years and upwards, to 4,301
spinsters aged fifteen and upwards; that is, making a com-
parison with a disparity of six years between the ages of
males and females, nearly 11 to 1, or an actual excess of
41,843.

Disparity between the mean ages at which men and women
marry is a point of too much importance to be overlooked in
discussing the conjugal condition of a people, because great
inequalities in age, just as inequality in other respects, is not
unfrequently a source from which disunion in married life
springs. As regards this poimt, it may be observed that
against 846 of the 851 women whom I have already noticed
as having been married under twenty years of age, there
were but 34 husbands belonging to the same age period. Of
the age-period twenty to twenty-five there were 5,180 wives
to 1973 husbands ; being altogether 6926 married women to
2007 married men under twenty-five years of age. Taking
the married of all ages on the gold-fields, the average age of
the men appears to be thirty-five years, and of the women
thirty, being a disparity of five years, or twice as great as
that of Great Britam. This seems to correspond very closely
with the difference between the ages of men and women about
to marry, as recorded in the marriage registers of the colony,
and presents a marked contrast to England and Wales, where
the dipanity is only one year. An average disparity of five
years betokens a great number of instances of very young
women being joined to men of mature years; and deducing
from one disparity other disparities, we are led to infer that
there are many unions of persons unsuited in rank, educa-
tion, and temperament. The attractions of wealth on one
side overcome objections on the other which would in ordi-
nary circumstances be insuperable; while the difficulty of
procuring suitable wives, no doubt, often leads men to selec-
tions which they would not make in more favorable positions.
As an instance m support of this view, it may be mentioned
that the marriage statistics show unsuitability as regards

120 The Conjugal Condition

education in the fact of 243 women signing with marks for
every 100 men. The proportion in England and Wales is
about 149 to 100.

These are the most prominent of the general and special
facts disclosed by the Census, illustrative of the conjugal
condition of this colony as contrasted with that of the mother
country ; and it can scarcely be considered a rash position to
maintain that, if any statistics have a practical value as a
guide in legislation, these are pre-eminently entitled to at-
tentive consideration in connection with the question— W he-
ther an experimental measure, supposed to be adapted to a
country circumstanced as Great Britain is, may not, in some
respects, be unsuitable to this? Uniformity m laws, though
desirable in the abstract, is rendered impossible by the force
of nature, by difference in climate, variety of natural pro-
ductions, dissimilarity of industrial pursuits, and by the
habits and sentiments engendered by varied physical and
moral circumstances. It is, perhaps, sound in _ policy
that as near an approach to uniformity as is consistent
with their peculiarities should be adopted by all nations
in their institutions, especially by all the divisions of the
same empire; but it should also be kept in mind, that
to follow blindly is not to follow wisely. Divergence, sooner
or later, seems inevitable, because legislation is never ending,
experience having shown that regulations well adapted to one
period are sure to become inconvenient in another, and that
laws imported from one community are found unsuitable to
the other.

Legislation affecting the marriage state, one of the most
important branches of which is that relating to the dissolution
of the contract itself, if contrived barely with a view to meet
the circumstances of the British Isles, and not designed
to meet all cases, can scarcely be altogether applicable
to Victoria. The probability that there exists a larger
amount, comparatively speaking, of disunion in married life
in this country than in Britain (and the daily revelations in
our courts, as well as the numerous advertisements in our
papers respecting wives who have deserted their homes,
seem but too confirmatory of the inference deducible
from our statistics —of the existence of much social de-
rangement) points to the greater need of a measure of
relief; but it also points to the greater necessity of
repressive conditions being conjoined with such relief,
inasmuch as numerous instances of desertion, whether on the

of the People of Victoria. 121

part of the husband or wife, suggest the existence of greater
facilities, or greater inducements for so doing; and if the
latter, there is the more necessity for taking precautions that
the most valuable of human institutions cannot be assaulted
with impunity—that the most sacred of contracts cannot be
violated at the instigation of caprice, passion, or interest.

The necessity of including repressive conditions in any
measure which may be enacted for this colony is most appo-
sitely illustrated by the consequences which attended too
great a laxity of the divorce law in California, a country
which resembles Victoria in the disproportionately small
number of marriageable females, as in many other respects.
Repressive measures, which have been dispensed with m
other portions of the Union, have had to be resorted to in
that State, “to put an end,” to use the words of an able
article in a San Francisco paper, “to a disgraceful evil, which
sat lke an ‘ old man of the mountain,’ upon the vitals of its
prosperity.”

The causes of divorce, as just intimated, are not the same
throughout the Union. ach of the States has its special
legislation on the matter ; and the laws of some are much
more restrictive than others—so much so, that the legislature
has to be resorted to very frequently in many of the States,
in cases not provided for by the statutes. The laws of some
of the States prohibit the guilty party from marrying again ;
but it would seem that in California a discretionary power of
prohibition is given to the courts. It appears, however, that
this power was but little exercised until a recent period, and
the ease with which divorce could be obtained, and the per-
mission to the divorced to re-enter the marriage state, had
been found to offer temptation to numbers of profligate
unmarried men to sow discord between man and wife, so as
to bring about a state of things that might lead to separa-
tion. After describing the abominable means resorted to,
as revealed on the divorce trials, to effect this end, and
denouncing the “ vile and degrading system of espionage
established over the husband,” the San Francisco Herald
thus proceeds :—“ After enough of this kind of evidence has
been collected to make out a case, the deluded wife is in-
formed that there is no trouble in procuring a divorce. She
is further told that our society is very facile on these points
— that divorce suits are conducted sub rosa — that no
unpleasant publicity ever accompanies them — that the
divorced parties are left entirely free to satisfy their separate

122 The Conjugal Condition.

inclinations afterwards. * * ** The courts have
manifested a disposition to put a check upon the facilities for
divorce that have obtained in this city. * * * This
determination is the direct and legitimate result of a greatly
improved condition of public opinion. California to-day is
a very different affair from California before thousands of our
own children were growing up around us. The public opinion
of a community of single families is a very different thing from
the public opinion of a community of smgle, and by no means
over-scrupulous, men; and within the past week two mortal
blows have been struck at the very root of the monstrous
social evil that so long fed like a canker on the dearest in-
terests of our State. * * * <A divorce (in Wood’s

case) was sought on the ground that the defendant was an -

habitual drunkard ; but it was shown that the charge was
unfounded. The defendant, like thousands of other men in
the city, against whom intemperance has never been alleged,
was in the habit of indulging occasionally by drinking with
his friends and acquaintances. He seems to have been sub-
jected to a vile system of espionage by the very parties who
participated with him and drank wine at hisexpense. * *
In the case of Buessard v. Buessard, divorce was granted for
adultery, clearly proven; but the judge ordered that the
euilty party should be for ever debarred from again dis-
gracing the sacred rite of matrimony, and mock at its obliga-
tions by assuming them. In the case of Krueger v. Krueger,
divorce was granted for good and sufficient cause, but coupled
with a like injunction. These decisions were in accordance
with that of the Supreme Court in the case of Conant v.
Conant, establishing the principle mentioned. We cite these
facts in proof that Californians are fully awake to the per-
nicious influence of divorce suits, for which no reason
exists other than in the inflamed imaginations of weak-
minded or viciously disposed persons.”

In this statement respecting the law of divorce in Califor-
nia, we have it presented to us that a preponderance of

unmarried men led to an abuse of that measure; that, ~

though in some of the other States no such great evil,
comparatively speaking, had resulted from the absence
of the restrictive clauses prohibitmg the guilty parties
from marrying again, yet in California it was found
expedient to exercise this power; proving the neces-
sity of adapting the laws to the peculiar circum-
stances of the country which has to be legislated for,

of the People of Victoria. 123

Most undoubtedly the circumstances of our population—at
least of a large portion of it—more nearly approach the
condition of the Californians than that of the inhabitants of
the British Islands. Is their experience, it may be asked,
altogether unworthy of our consideration ?

With reference to the policy or justice of placing on the
guilty a prohibition from again marrying, it is possible that
cases may occur where to do so would prove a hardship, or
cause a life of crime to be the sequence of a moment of guilt ;
but the most salutary contrivances have their drawbacks.
The punishment we inflict for a small theft, hampers the pro-
gress of the reformed and hardworking man throughout his
after-life, making him perhaps in the end a burden on society.
The fraudulent bankrupt is refused permission ever again to
enter into trade; and probably continues a rogue and a
pauper for the remainder of his life. If, therefore, for a
breach of the contract between merchant and merchant a
severe restriction is imposed, surely it seems but consistent
that a similar course should be adopted towards those who
violate the most important contract which legislation can
foster. It seems but a simple duty to protect the unwary
from those whose unfitness to fill the position of husband or
wife has been established ; and it does not follow that be-
cause people are relieved from the burden of a dangerous
or odious contract, that they who rendered its dissolution an
act of justice, should be allowed to form a new engagement,
or that the law should step in to place those who have shame-
lessly violated one engagement, in a position to violate a
second ; neither does it follow, because the injured call for a
measure of relief, that the opposite extreme should be rushed
into, and that, in our zeal for facilitating divorce, we should
also legislate in favour of evil-doers.

Restrictions on the re-entering of guilty parties into the
marriage state, similar to those to which attention has been
directed, are not without other parallels. Previous to the
present law of the United Kingdom, there was an order of
the House of Lords that every divorce bill, on account of
adultery, should contain a clause prohibiting the marriage of
offending parties with each other, and this clause was main-
tained in one very flagrant case. The Code Napoleon re-
stricted the liberty of divorce which had been introduced in
the earlier revolutionary period, and amongst other restraints
prohibited a woman from contracting a new marriage until
the expiration of ten months from the dissolution of the

124 The Conjugal Condition

preceding. The object of this is so obvious, that it seems
strange any divorce law could be without such a clause.

We have the testimony of Chancellor Kent, that in the
United States adultery has been committed for the purpose
of divorce ; and the records of the English Divorce Court,
short a time as it has been in operation, presents an instance
of a wife’s family having employed detectives to get up a
case against a husband of blameless character, and exercising
an honorable profession. If precautions against a social flaw
so mischievous as these instances would indicate, are neces-
sary in countries where people may, as a general rule, form
marriages with less chances of disunion than in a country
so circumstanced as this, the more desirable it is that we
should set greater limitations on the liberty of divorce.

In conclusion, it may not be out of place to urge that
while every reasonable effort should on the one hand be
made to meliorate the conjugal condition of the people of this
colony, caution on the other hand should be observed in
adopting any course calculated to aggravate it—and this on
economical as well as on moral grounds. Though there are
men whose temperament enables them to dispense with
family association and affection, the vast majority are
affected by inability to enter into the marriage state. Men
whose minds have not the mtense occupation which such
studies as theology, philosophy, science or literature can
afford, or who have not entered successfully ito the arena
of the politically ambitious, are but too apt to supply the
absence of conjugal relations by dissipation. Drunkenness,
which is considered excessive in this country, is no doubt
much increased by want of the occupation entailed by
domestic ties. Vices cannot, unfortunately, be indulged in
without companions, and those who are hurried along by
them drag others into the vortex. The licentiousness of the
unmarried amongst the men is not without a corresponding
amount of baneful results upon the unmarried women.
Every circumstance which deteriorates the moral character
of a people, augments the cost of governing them, and
diminishes their wealth-producing powers. Not only is
time squandered, and health and energy wasted, but the
position of the celibate is a bar to the successful practice of
many branches of industry. The assistance of a wife to the
small trader or farmer is of almost inestimable value; and
though many unmarried men in this country endeavour by
partnerships to overcome the drawback, many more would

of the People of Victoria. 125

gladly turn to other pursuits than those to which they
are confined by the circumstances of being bachelors.
Most unquestionably the moral character of our population,
which should be a primary object of legislation, would be
greatly improved by such an increase of the adult female
population as would enable the relative proportion of the
married men to be increased ; and it is a question worthy of
consideration whether the industrial efficiency of the ex-
isting male population may not be equally augmented
by an accession of females, as by the addition of some
thousands to the number of unmarried men. But be this
as it may, it would be far better as regards the permanent
prosperity and greatness of our country to legislate for an
increase of virtue rather than for an increase of numbers ;
for an increase of human happiness rather than for a facti-
tious appearance of wealth. Exports and imports, though
they may be mercantile deities and have their worshippers,
are not everything; and it would be well if those who would
remedy excessive importation by introducing male con-
sumers, could realise the fact that they would thereby
aggravate some of our social evils; it would be well if they
could recognise, with Michelet, that the aim of political
economy “is not riches; even comfort is a secondary con-
sideration, the more completely acquired when the aim is
higher. The aim of political economy and all policy is Zo
make men—wmen intelligent, benevolent, courageous, and
robust. This is riches in the highest sense of the word.”

The Conjugal Condition

126

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128 Remarks on the Physical Geography, &c., of the

Art. V.—Remarks on the Physical Geography, Climate, &c.,
of the Regions lying between the Rivers Lachlan and Darling.
By W. Locxuarr Morton, Esa.

[Read before the Royal Society, 18th August, 1860, on the occasion of the
departure of the Victorian Exploring Expedition. ]

Unper the impression that some remarks concerning the
country lyimg between the rivers Lachlan and Darling may
be not uninteresting, I have undertaken to place a few before
this Society.

It is well known that various individuals have, at different
times, made incursions into that extensive tract of country,
but none of them, so far as I am aware, have ever placed any
of their observations upon record. I believe, therefore, that
I may be able to furnish some new and interesting. facts.

Towards the end of April last, m company with a brother
of the Honorable the Attorney-General, and a Mr. Hamilton,
I started from Melbourne for the purpose of looking for good
sheep country between the rivers above named. On the
2nd of May we arrived at Euston, a township belonging to
New South Wales, and situated on the north bank of the
river Murray, about eighty miles above the junction of the
river Darling. From this place it was our intention to have
proceeded northward, through the Mallee Scrub, but hearing
that Mr. W. Ross, one of the most enterprising settlers on
the Murray, had another station back fifty miles from the
river, and that to it there existed a good road through the
scrub, we proceeded up as far as his head station. Gomg thence
northerly, after passing over seven miles of undulating
country, abounding with limestone gravel, and much bur-
rowed by wombats—which are evidently much smaller than
the common variety—we came to the edge of the Mallee
Scrub. On the sandy soil at the edge of the Mallee, we first
saw the water-yielding Hakea, which was to me quite new.
One fine tree seemed so full of water that the outer bark, to
the height of a foot from the ground, seemed quite saturated
with moisture. This valuable thorny tree is not found except
on sandy soil, or on sandhills. It is easily recognized by its
peculiarly white silvery foliage. Its roots run along, near
to the surface, and after beimg cut from the root, can be torn

Regions between the Rivers Lachlan and Darling. 129

up to the distance of ten or fifteen feet with the greatest ease.
The structure of the root of this tree or shrub is tubular, so
that water can easily be drawn up through it to the height of
several feet.

I had supposed that the country lying back from the
Murray would be found nearly on a level with the rest of the
Murray country, but on entering the mallee we soon found
that we were gradually ascending. The scrub is large and
remarkably open; limestone, in the form of coarse gravel,
generally crops everywhere through the surface. There is an
undergrowth of saltbush, and numerous prickly shrubs, so
that even the mallee is capable of being, hereafter, depastured
by small flocks of sheep.

We had not proceeded far through the scrub when we came
to ridges of loose red sand, covered with bunches of spinefex.
These ridges, which resemble those observed by Sturt and
Gregory, occur irregularly at intervals of a mile, or of a few
hundred yards. They invariably trend in one direction,
coincident with the true east and west—not the magnetic.
It is worthy of remark, that wherever those ridges of sand
occur, it is on the brow of a step toa higher level. This and
the extreme purity of the sand, seem to indicate that they
owe their origin to water, and not to the influence of the
winds.

A few miles into the scrub, Mr. Ross has had a well sunk
to the depth of fifty or sixty feet, but the workmen having
come upon a bed of sand, with abundance of salt water, they
had to stop. The whole of the material dug out of this well
consists of an unctuous white clay or marl, containing lime.
Mr. Ross has had altogether three wells sunk, the furthest
out one being about fifty miles back from the Murray. In
all of them water was obtained, but invariably salt; in the
furthest out one, however, not so much so as in those nearer
the Murray.

Proceeding N.N.H., the mallee becomes even more open,
and saltbush and berce—a scented wood, like the myall—are
plentiful. At the distance of about twenty-five miles from the
Murray we came to the edge of the open plains.

The line of division between the scrub and the open
plains runs nearly north and south ; and it would appear that
there has been here some subterranean disturbance, causing
a depression, extending irregularly along the line of division,
for the open country slopes from the north-east, towards the
high ground on which the mallee grows; heuce it is along

K

180 Remarks on the Physical Geography, &c., of the

this line of division that water may be more easily found.
For a width of ten miles, along the edge of the scrub, the
undulating country is very good, abounding with grass, herbs,
and many varieties of saltbush. No better fattening country
could be found anywhere, especially for sheep.

Our course was now northerly, along the edge of the fine
open country. On our right vast plains stretched eastward to
the horizon, and on our left was the higher ground of the mal-
lee, into the irregular bends or indentations of which shallow
watercourses from the plains frequently enter, and terminate
in depressed hollows or gullies.

For eleven miles we were evidently rismg higher above the
level of the sea. The country has a general slope from the
north-east towards the south-west. This remark, I believe,
will be found correct in reference to the whole of that exten-
sive region. So far as my own observation goes, this is
plainly discernible by the eye; and, I believe, the table of the
registrations of the aneroid and of its attached thermometer
will prove the opinion as correct.

Farther north, about eleven miles, we come to the Head
Winter Station, occupied by Mr. Ross. Having been kindly
invited to rest our horses for a few days, we spent the
time in examining the locality, and in drying a quantity of
meat.

A number of men were here engaged in excavating a very
large tank, twelve feet in depth. They told me that they fre-
quently came upon masses of shells, like oyster shells. I
could not find any, but I picked up a few curiously shaped
pieces of lime, resembling teeth of animals, and pieces of roots
of plants. The upright side of the tank, twelve feet high,
exhibited a blue clay, in small hard angular pieces, and much
mixed with lime-earth and limestone gravel.

Having previously heard from the supermtendent of the
station, that strata of sandstone rock were to be met with,
within a few miles of the station, I felt very anxious to find
them, but no one on the station knew anythmg about the
subject; and; although we searched for the locality, we did
not succeed in finding it. I, however, saw several specimens.
It is not a ferruginous sandstone like the coarse sandstone
found on the Murray, but is very hard and compact, and, m
its general character and colour, resembles closely the sand-
stone of the coal formation on the eastern coast of Australia.
In such places good water might be found without sinking to
any great depth. Even to some distance from where the

Regions between the Rivers Lachlan and Darling. 131

sandstone appears, it is probable that the tertiary drift over-
lying it is not of great depth.

The whole surface of this region is apparently composed of
tertiary drift; but there is a marked difference between the
open country and that covered with mallee. In the latter
limestone greatly abounds, and the ridges of red sand, already
mentioned, are always present, and come close up to the edge
of the open plains, but never enter them. ‘The plains, on the
other hand, possess extensive tracts, having a surface of hard
blue clay, and wide areas covered by a thin stratum of red
clay. Vast portions of the plains, however, have neither de-
scription of clay on their surface ; but, it is worthy of remark,
that where this is the case, water seems to have carried away
the clay stratum from the surface down into the absorbent
beds of lime-earth and limestone gravel beneath; for such
places are always in hollows, or in great land depressions, and
a careful examination of the edges of them proves that this
alteration of the surface is a progressive change of a chemicai
and mechanical character. There is a deep trench, destitute
of vegetation, on the one side of which is the clayey surface,
on the other, an extremely loose soil, like a level mass of re-
cently slaked lime, and standing higher than the original
surface.

Thus the traveller in vain looks for water, even immediately
after rain, if he looks for it in the larger depressions of the sur-
face ; for it is on the red clay, or on the blue clay tracts only,
that it is to be found in very shallow pools. This constitutes
the grand question for finding water on that level country of
boundless plains—is the surface of red or blue clay? But the
red is the most certain, for, being mixed with much red or
ferruginous sand, the surface does not crack so much as that
of the pure blue clay.

It is highly interesting, I may here observe, to notice the
total change in the vegetation of the one surface from the
other; the clayey surface abounds with numerous varieties of
saltbush, but on the loose absorbent surface, where all the salts
have been carried deep into the earth, no saltbush grows ;
nothing but herbs and a coarse grass, which produces a fine
large grain, not unlike French millet; some of this seed I
have presented to Dr. Mueller, having found it in the crop of
a crested pigeon. The Doctor informs me that it is Panicum
decompositum, from which the natives make bread.

In reference to the difference between the formation of the
plains and the mallee country, one thing, I think, seems evi-

K 2

132 Remarks on the Physical Geography, &c., of the

dent, and that is, that on the surface of the plains there is a
stratum of comparatively modern drift.

While resting our horses at Mr Ross’s, we had also leisure
to experiment on the water-yielding Hakea. The first root,
about half an inch in diameter, and six or eight feet long,
yielded, quickly and im large drops, about a wine glassful of
really excellent water. Near Mr. Ross’s station, and all along
the edge of the open country, there is a species of Casuarina
that I had never met with before. The bark is smooth,
the foliage short and erect, the wood is yellow, and so re-
markably soft that, with a small tomahawk, I could cut down
a tree a foot in diameter in a few seconds. It makes an ex-
cellent fire, burning readily when newly cut. I felt much
interest in finding there a tree which I had met with near Peak
Downs. I am indebted to Dr. Mueller for its botanical name,
Myoporum platycarpum. The dry wood of this tree, split into
laths and tied with bark by the natives, I had found on the
river Isaacs, last year. Concluding from this circumstance
that it possessed good burning qualities, I put the end of a
piece into the fire, when it burned like a candle. Upon find-
ing it near Mr. Ross’s, I applied to it the same test with the
same result.

On the 10th of May we started from Mr. Ross’s, with the
intention of proceeding north till we got well back into the
centre of the country, and then north-east, so as to get a good
view of the whole. There was plenty of water in a shallow
creek near this station, from recent rains, but we were doubt-
ful whether any water could be met with farther north. We
went about thirty miles north, over a fine country abounding
with saltbush, grass, and herbs; we could, however, find no
water, and had to camp without it. It was evident that this
locality had been visited by herds of cattle and troops of wild
horses, and that these had emptied all the shallow water-holes,
and gone elsewhere, for none of their tracks were fresh. Thus
disappointed, we resolved to cross to the Lachlan, and make an
incursion from thence. We therefore returned to the water
by Mr. Ross’s, and next day started for the nearest point of
the Murrumbidgee, steering EH. 30°8. For six miles the sur-
face is undulating, and there is a general slope of the land
towards the south-west. Beyond this point the fall of the
country is towards the south, and shallow water-courses pass
through the level plains in the same direction. For ten miles
the plains are very level and elevated, then they again become
undulating; and, on approaching the Murrumbidgee, there is a

Regions between the Rivers Lachlan and Darling. 133

considerable descent from the high plains towards the flats of
that river. We were late in getting into camp, and darkness
overtook us, but we went on till we saw water. Some of the flats
near the river were dangerous to ride over, from the number
of deep fissures in the ground, caused by descending currents
of water washing away the upper soil. In the morning we
found ourselves close by the Murrumbidgee, on an old reed-bed,
which was being slowly submerged by the rising and oyerflow-
ing waters of the river.

We next proceeded up the Murrumbidgee, and thence up
the Lachlan for a hundred miles; but it is unnecessary to
refer to that part of our journey.

On the 22nd of May we reached the point from which we
intended to start for the north-west. We had just got into
camp, about noon, when rain began to fall, and it continued
till three o’clock p.m. on the 23rd, filling my pint-pot with
an inch and a half of water. We now found that the plains
were excessively heavy; and as our horses, from their long
journey and want of sufficient grass, had become much re-
duced, we waited a day to allow the surface to dry. On the
25th of May we started in a north-west direction, from a
point on the Lachlan about three miles above Dr. Ramsay’s
station. Passing over seven miles of beautiful plains, well
grassed and sound, and apparently on a level with the banks
of the river, we came to a dry creek, lined with box and red
gum trees; the bottom of this creek is fifteen feet below the
level of the plains. From this point we saw a hill-top bearing
N. 8° E. In four miles farther, over a fine plain abounding
with grass, cottonbush, and some saltbush, we reached a sand-
hill covered openly with pine trees. Here we camped for the
night, our poor horses enjoying plenty of grass. The hill
seen on the previous day bore N. 15° E.

Next day we passed over twenty miles of excellent plains,
abounding with cottonbush, herbs, grass, and saltbush, as well
as much ofthe grass that yields a seed like millet. The plains
possess numerous water-channels, most of them without tim-
ber, and but a few feet lower than the level of the plains;
all of them have a general south-west course. Sandhills, and
ridges of sandy ground, lumps of timber, and patches of hop-
scrubs afford dry beds and shelter for stock.

Thirty miles from the Lachlan we came to a very large
dry creek, from its size and its extensive system of river flats,
almost entitled to be called a river bed. It has a general
course of W.S.W. For four miles on each side the land slopes

134 Remarks on the Physical Geography, &c., of the

towards it. This has at no remote period been an important
creek, and may become such again if its outlet from the
Lachlan, now said to be silted up, were again opened. Thus
a fine and extensive pastoral country might be supplied with
water frontage. It is impossible that this creek can bend
round again to the Lachlan ; its direction is towards the Dar-
ling, and itis probable that it either reaches that river, or ends’
in some great inland depression. We camped by this creek,
and in the morning I saw that there was now quite a range
of hill-tops in view towards the north. These bore respec-
tively—N. 14° W., N.18° E., N.23° E., N.37° E., N. 48° E.,
and the point first observed, N.65° KE. Having always care-
fully timed our horses, I thus obtained a base by which to
measure the distances those hills were from us with some de-
gree of accuracy. One of our six horses had to be left here,
unable to go farther. In leaving it we were not without
some apprehension that it might be taken off by the wild
horses that, in numerous troops, inhabit this otherwise unce-
cupied country.

Four miles from the large creek we came to a swamp about
a mile wide, with an undulating hard clay bottom, covered in
some places with a very coarse sand of disintegrated granite.
We had now evidently got upon a different description of
country ; a level country, with merely local depressions, to
receive any water that may flow from the plains, and alto-
gether without the shallow water-channels such as we had
seen on the south side of the large dry creek already referred
to. In crossing this swamp bed, which is thinly covered with
the rough-barked box-tree peculiar to a dry country, much
polyizonum scrub, and a tall, coarse reed grass, we had some
sport with a large emu. Stopping our horses, I dismounted,
and making a sound like a young emu, I brought it up within
shot, when I discharged both barrels at its head, but without
effect. Itis of importance to know that emus that have not
often seen white men can be thus attracted. When in the north
of Queensland, last year, I often, out of curiosity, mduced
these birds to come quite within shot, and even to follow us
for long distances. But it is of no use to fire at them with
small shot, as I did on this occasion.

At the distance of two and a half miles farther, we passed
another box-swamp, which had a bottom of loose blue clay,
cut in the most extraordimary manner with deep and steep-
sided fissures, the effect, I believe, of descending currents of
water.

Regions between the Rivers Lachlan and Darling. 135

In two and a half miles farther we came to another dry
swamp, covered with box-trees and polyizonum, when we re-
. solved to camp, as we could see no timber beyond. ‘The nights
were always most bitterly cold, with white frosts, the ther-
mometer falling below the freezing point, and we were there-
fore careful to secure abundance of firewood to burn opposite
to the open end of our tents.

At this camp I obtained a fine view of the range of hills
before mentioned. The various hills bore respectively—N.
42° H., N. 40° E., N.57° E., N. 72° E., N. 76° E., N. 80° E.,
and the almost vertical end of the range first seen, N. 86° E.
From the outline of some of these hills, exhibiting an inclined
plain and an abrupt cliff alternately, Iam of opinion that they
are hills of a stratified rock. Vast saltbush plais stretched
away on our right and left. Some of the plains are very level,
and, having a soil of hard blue clay, grow nothing but a stunted
saltbush; but im general there is plenty of cottonbush, herbs,
and grass; in short, it is a fine country for fattening sheep.

During our next day’s stage, we came again in sight of the
Casuarina seen at Mr Ross’s station; numerous clumps break
the monotony of the plains ; the soil became more sandy, and
grass and herbs more plentiful. Two miles after starting we
crossed some rising ground, when we saw before us to the
right a long belt of timber stretching south-east and north-
west. This was a belt of the Casuarina, and towards it the
plains seem to slope for at least a mile. In six miles farther
we came to an elevated bank, from which we obtained a view to
the westward and south-west of far greater extent than usual.
The whole surface seemed to slope again to the south-west.
The plains were so extensive and so very loose and difficult
to travel over, that if we kept our north-west course there was
no prospect of our being able to reach any timber. We there-
fore now went N. 63° W., and crossing an extensive depres-
sion of the ground where the surface was as loose as that of
newly-ploughed land, in five or six miles we reached a clump
of Casuarina trees. Here were many old camps of the natives,
who had been there but a short time before. Some vertebre
of snakes lying about revealed both the poverty of the
locality in game and the abject condition of its temporary
inhabitants.

Leaying here our horses and our tents and outfit, we made
a journey on foot. The weakness of our horses, and the loose
and soft nature of the ground, had prevented us from making
long stages, although we frequently relieved them by walking

‘

186 Remarks on the Physical Geography, &c., of the

afoot; and our small stock of provisions began to fail, without
being able to find any creature to shoot larger than a common
sparrow. We had previously shot so many native turkeys
that we had calculated on getting more, but all that we saw
after leaving the settled country were too wild. We had now
fulfilled the object of our journey, and seeing that all the
plains were much alike, we thought it best to push to the
south, and thence back to the Lachlan before starvation over-
took us. Afraid that the natives might come upon our camp
in our absence, we went to the north-west only five miles, ob-
taining a view extending about five miles beyond. It is alla
good sheep country, but so small are the shallow pools that
contain water, that without the fall of rain, with which we had
been favoured immediately before our visit, we could not pos-
sibly have gone where we did.

Returning to our camp at noon, I resolved to spend an hour
or two in making a waterhole that might be of use hereafter
to myself orto others. Making aspade and crowbar of wood,
and having hardened them in the fire, in two hours and a half
T dug out of the solid hard ground, a hole capable of contain-
ing at least two tons of water, and with the material made a
dam across a gulley. Having finished my work I stuck up my
spade and crowbar with a playful injunction that they should
remain there till my return.

We now went S. 10° E. for twelve miles over loose plains,
and others abounding with saltbush and grass, when we had
reluctantly to turn to a course E.15°S., to pick up our horse
which had been left. The plains were now more extensive
than usual. To the east, west, and the south, there was no
tree, no bush, no object to serve as a landmark. On our way
we passed several sheets of very shallow water, lyimg on beds
of slippery white clay, and covering several acres. ar to our
right, after travelling about five miles, we saw the timber of
the large creek already mentioned, and I was thus enabled to
mark its course for many miles to the westward of where we
had crossed it.

Next day we returned to where we had left our horse and
some of our saddles, and other articles, and thence pursued
~ again a southern course, over fine plains, reaching the Lachlan
in about sixty miles, and ten miles above Oxley’s marked
tree, which still stands, though only portions of the letters
now remain.

I fear that I have made this paper already too long, not-
withstanding that I have excluded much that might have been

Regions between the Rivers Lachlan and Darling. 187

amusing and interesting ; but I wish to ask for a little further
indulgence that I may make a few general remarks on the
peculiarities of the country travelled over, as they may prove
of service to others. In many parts of Australia the red gum
tree indicates permanent water, and thus a distant line of
tall white timber may tell of a creek or river. In dry level
regions, within our own territory, there is a box tree with a
coarse bark, that indicates the presence of water, not perma-
nent; but, in the locality lying between the rivers Lachlan
and Darling, the same box trees only indicate swamps of the
past, and which have beds so riddled with deep fissures, that,
if a river were to flow into them to-day, they would be dry
to-morrow. The indications of water, in that country, are a
tall, coarse-jointed grass, and the largest variety of saltbush.
Polyganum scrub always indicates a flooded country ; where
there is plenty of this scrub, but stunted and perishing, it
seems merely to indicate that the country was once flooded,
or better watered. I think the numerous dry watercourses
prove this also. The land has either risen, or the bed of the
Lachlan has become deeper ; for in my opinion there is great
weight of evidence to prove that numerous canals, at no very
remote period, went out from the Lachlan to water the lock
plains. Hills and ridges of sand, altogether different in color
from the ferruginous sand ridges of the mallee scrub, owe
their origin, I believe, to currents of fresh water.

We always found our vision much circumscribed by mirage.
From four to five miles is the utmost limit at which trees can
be seen during the sunshine. The only time to get a clear
and distant view on such plains as those referred to, is before
sunrise.

In reference to certain animals being able to live without
water, wombats, rats, mice, snakes, and dew and knobby-
tailed lizards, appear to be continual residents in localities
where there is no water near. The first two named may pro-
bably migrate, but not the others. Our dog frequently found
such creatures, especially small mice.

On the plains the mesembryanthemum plants are always to
be met with. It has often occurred to me that this plant
- might be made use of in cases of emergency. Any quantity
of water could be obtained from it, and it would only require
a small still for the purpose, unless the soda or potash which
it contains could be otherwise extracted.

I think it ought to be generally known, that wherever
wells have been sunk, either on the Murrumbidgee or Murray

188 Remarks on the Physical Geography, &c., of the

plains, beds of sand have always been met with, and in the
sand brackish water is found.

The following particulars of a well that has been sunk on
the Murrumbidgee plains may be not without interest :—
The well was sunk to a bed of sand, when water was obtained.
It is 49 feet deep, has 7 feet of water im it. The water tastes
like lime-water, probably from the potash of the decomposing
felspar, for the sand found is a disintegrated granite. On
the 9th of June, the temperature of the water was 66°, that of
the Murray being 50°. On the 27th of April, at Swan Hill,
the temperature was 62°.

It was my earnest wish to have got some fresh horses, and
to have returned to follow down the large creek, because I
considered it as an object of great interest todo so; but my
companions did not feel justified in incurring the necessary
expense.

The whole of that country might, in a few years, be occu-
pied by millions of sheep, but a policy, as shortsighted in
general as in its details it is unworthy, stands up like some
monster of antiquity to repel the tide of settlement. One
commissioner, like a king of the wilderness, reigns over forty
millions of acres. He is allowed one horse only. Now, as
all runs are obtained by tender, and all tenders must wait for
the report of the commissioner, and as that gentleman is ex-
pected to visit each run tendered for over acountry in extent
equal to two-thirds of Victoria, with only one horse to ride,
it follows that runs applied for by the present generation will
be ready for the occupation by the next. Meanwhile, New
South Wales is content to defraud itself of additional revenue,
Victoria is prevented from extending her commercial limits,
a great increase of stock, with its production of wool and
human food is hindered, and avast region of illimitable salt-
bush plains slumbers on as a wilderness, where no man
dwells.

I have only to add, that I have been indebted to the inde-
fatigable Dr. Mueller for his list of names of plants collected
during our journey.

List of the Plants collected by Lockhart Morton, Esq.,
between the Rivers Darling and Lachlan :—

Flindersia maculosa, Ferd. Mueller
Dodonza viscosa, Linne
Heterodendron oleifolium, Desfontaines

-*

Regions between the Rivers Lachlan and Darling. 139

Sida intricata, Ferd. Mueller
Abutilon halophilum, Ferd. Mueller
Erodium moschatum, |’ Heritier
Zygophyllum crenatum, Ferd. Mueller
Acacia stenophylla, All. Cunningham
Cassia platypoda, R. Brown

Cassia heteroloba, Lindley
Euphorbia Chameesyz, Linne
Senecia lautus, Forster

Minuria leptophylla, Candolle
Therogeron integerrimus, Candolle
Teucrium racemosum, R. Brown
Solanum pulchellum, Ferd. Mueller
Myoporum platycarpum, R. Brown
Myoporum dulce, Bentham

Hakea stricta, Ferd. Mueller

Salsola Australis, R. Brown
Scleroleena paradoxa, R. Brown
Sclerochlamys brachyptera, Ferd. Mueller
Kochira sedifolia, Ferd. Mueller
Rhagodia nutans, R. Brown
Exocarpus aphylla, R. Brown
Eragrostis Brownu, Kunth

Panicum decompositum, R. Brown

OBSERVATIONS OF THE ANEROID AND ATTACHED THERMOMETER

ON THE LACHLAN AND DARLING PLAINS, &c., Xe.

PLACE. ANEROID. Tuer.
Porcupine, near Mount Alexander, Victoria... | 28°63 26°50
Hill at head of Bendigo Creek, 5 p.m........... 28°58 25°00
Sandhurst, 11 p.m. (raining) .............scceee 29°11 22°00
Serpentine Inn, River Loddon, 6.30 a.m....... 29:09 16°75
Duck Swamp, Serpentine ..............seseseeseeees 29°37 18:00
Loddon Inn, 45 miles N. of Serpentine Inn... 29°87 20:00
Same Place, sO: OU a Wvervceraviccveceentovsvarscuet 29°93 8-00
Near Murdering Lake, 2 p.m...........sscecseeeee 29°99 27°00
Lake Boga, water level, 1 p.m........sccesseeeres 30°05 24°50
Soar Hl, (GSOtams <2. sccccnbs-tesstvovncestrescebes 29:95 12°50
Tyntyndyer, 7 &.W...ssccosscccessaneerernmscemer eee 29°81 18:00
Coghill’s Old Station, 16 miles down ae 29°79 23:50

Tyntyndyer, 7 QWs sceccsssessscersveccsssvens

140 Remarks on the Physical Geography, &c.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE ANEROID, &c.—continued.
Date. PLAcE, ANEROID. THER.
1860.
May 1 | Hamilton’s Station, 20 miles from last, 7 a.m. 29°88 46°00
» 2 | M‘Callum’s Station, 12 miles below the 30-11 15-00
junction of the Murrumbidgee ......,..... y
>» 9 | Euston, 22 miles below last place .............06 30°12 5:00
3», 4 | Dry Lake, 8 miles E.N.E. from Euston ...... 30°15 13-00
» 9 | Mr. Ross's Station, Mailman ................00. 30°15 11:00
Bs 5 eens -ridge, in Mallee Scrub, ae sOUNDsMsncewecees 30°16 24-00
6 dge of open country, 30 miles N E. from . ;
ty “Mailman.........:.... PIG CRATE 30°20 4°67
Bs 6 | Tacnall, 38 miles N.N.E. from Mailman ...... 30°21 18:33
43 7 | Head Winter alas (Nit RGSSts) wets csenceo tes 30°14 2°50
11 | Camp, 30 miles of last place, or of {Qc :
a latitude 34°17! 44 oss csscccssssee it ae As
», 12 | 10 miles E., 30°S., towards Murrumbidgee, \ 29-94 28-00
Mets aver Mawmtidens ce ok a eat 29:87 2°75
5, 15 | Above junction of. River Lachlan .......,....... 29°82 Zero
53 eolGiy|pOxley Reserve. J. .cjccucsecsssteneoh codensseacenreaces 29°47 9°75
>) 18 | 21 miles above; Oxley, i.)i2..:sessssencdeneectaceseence 29°52 15°50
>, 19 | Waijeers, 41 miles above Oxley ...........cs0c00 29°56 7:50
>» 20 | Hurst’s Station, 20 miles above Waljeers...... 29°76 5°50
53 a Anabranch of Lachlan, 16 miles above Huet s 29°69 2°25
Z 18 miles above last place and 14 above Sul- ; s
4 lar and Bowler’s sernsene sens So ocee tees \ 29°46 14:50
23 |7 miles above last place, and 23 above , :
“s aay (raining) Percent 29°47 15°75
26 | 11 miles N.W. from Lachlan, on sand hill 3 :
a BOfeet high .....cs.cccsse-e. are teary ties t 29°65 9:00
>, 27 | Large creek, 30 miles N.W. from Lachlan... 29-74 3°50
», 28 | Windmill Swamp, 10 miles N.W. aa 29-84 0:50
TAY OO ICLOC Keen cuversacscetianecedecseceenaets below Zero
AS Peo Casuarina achiurnyp-red..ceccndusesmsceteceaemene a ke ses 29-94 2°00
eee cas point reached, about 5 miles from 30-40 18-00
ASb eee vacation ace ete atenueweetamaesumltroeteec tees
dl | Camp 13 miles 8. from where the large ; 3
ce creek was first crossed............sseesseeeses 29°84 1°00
June 1 | Camp by a dry creek, about 8 miles N. W.
from Anabranch of Lachlan, and sup- 29-70 300
posed to be the same as that crossed 7 below Zero
miles N.W. from Ramsay’s
» 8 | Suttor’s Station, on Anabranch gett 29°57 2:00
soy iy) LOxley:s: Marked, Teens. co® swancevaghacen senaeeeie 29°50 11°75
>» @¢ | Sand hill, 5 miles B. of Waljeers ..........0.+ 2948 6:50
> 8. | Hay, on Murrumbidgee.......:.....deccsssssveeseoss 29°40 4°50
>» 9 | Old Man Plain, 8. of Murrumbidgee ............ 29°50 208
a : 1:50
Ary kd) Billibong Creoketera.cn, coh antec iseetenenacmnsenscte cence 29°64 nelow Vex
>», ll | 12 miles N. of Deniliquin................ at sess 29-54 7:00.
11 | Deniliquin (sunset)..,......... Sacainaeaan ea cie Doe 29°51 14:00

On the Nest and Eggs of the Coach-whip Bird, §c. 141

Art. VI.—On the Nest and Eggs of the Coach-whip Bird
(Psophodes Crepitans, Gould), and of the White-fronted
Epthianura (Epthianura Albifrons, Gould), with some gene-
ral remarks on the Nidification of Australian Birds. By
A. Dosrez, Esa.

[Read before the Royal Society, August 27, 1861.]

As neither Mr. Gould’s work on Australian ornithology, nor
such others as I have been able to consult, contain any par-
ticulars of the nidification of the two above-mentioned species,
I am led to the conclusion that, although probably casually
discovered, no description has as yet been published, and beg
therefore to communicate the following notes, from personal
observation.

lst. Psophodes Crepitans (Gould). Coach-whip Bird.

This bird is well known to most Australian colonists,
though, probably, far more frequently by the peculiar note
whence it derives its current name, than by its appearance, as
it generally keeps itself concealed amidstthicketsand brushes.
To naturalists this species is extremely interesting, as its sin-
gular characteristics have long rendered it a matter of doubt
what precise place to assign to it in the ranks of Australian
birds. The details of its nidification may tend to the further
elucidation of this point.

It will not be out of place first to quote a few of Mr. Gould’s
very accurate remarks on the habits of this bird. He says,
“Tt is only to be found in dense brushes, and is a shy and
recluse species; for although its full notes—ending sharply
like the crack of a whip—indicate its presence, it rarely ex-
poses itself to view, but generally keeps in the midst of the
densest foliage and among the thickest climbing plants, fre-
quenting alike those that have intertwined themselves with
the branches of the tallest shrubs, and those that form almost
impenetrable masses near the ground, and through which it
threads its way with the utmost ease. It is extremely ani-
mated and sprightly in all its actions. Of its nidification, I
regret to say I know nothing, although I paid great attention
to the subject myself, and offered rewards for its nest and
eggs, and for any information respecting them.”

142 On the Nest and Eggs of the Coach-whip Bird, &c.

The present nest and eggs were obtained by me near the
banks of the Yarra Yarra, near Heidelberg, on one of those
points of land or ‘‘bends” of the river still left in their original
state, and where the underwood and tangle are extremely
dense. Being on a visit in the neighbourhood on the opposite
side of the river late in the previous summer, my attention
was attracted by the remarkable note of this bird, but as the
breeding season was then past, I merely noted its haunt.
Finding, however, on reference to Gould’s work, that its nidi-
fication was unknown, and relying on a general fact I had -
often observed, namely, that the same pair (apparently) of
birds will, if undisturbed, return for several years to the same
locality for breeding, I revisited the spot about the com-
mencement of the next summer, and, after a short search,
was rewarded by the discovery of the nest, on which the
female bird was sitting so closely as almost to allow herself
to be captured; thus removing all doubt as to the identity
of the nest and eggs. The nest was in the most tangled part
of the thicket, and placed in the forked branches of a shrub,
about four feet from the ground—it is cupshaped, about five
inches outside diameter, the exterior of dry slender twigs, and
the interior lined with thin fibres and a few pieces of horse-
hair, the latter evidently owing to the accidental vicinity of
some farms; the whole structure is neither very solidly nor
elaborately built. It contained two eggs—tlength, exactly one
inch; extreme width, three quarters of aninch. In shape they
are not much pointed at the thinner end, and the greatest
girth is at about the middle. Their ground-colour is pale
greenish blue, with streaks and dots of various sizes scattered
pretty equally over the whole surface ; these markings are of
a brownish black colour, and of two kinds, the one being very
distinct and sharp, the other somewhat less numerous, more
greyish, and much fainter, having the appearance of being
under the shell. From the fact of the bird sitting so closely,
I conclude that no more than two eggs are generally laid,
though the present ones had not yet been perceptibly in-
cubated.

I regret to say I have kept no precise memorandum as to
the date of finding the nest, but believe it to have been about
the end of October.

Qnd. Epthianura Albifrons. Whaite-fronied Epthianura.

This bird, which at the first cursory glance recals the
familiar English black and white Water-Wagtail, both by its

On the Nest and Eggs of the Coach-whip Bird, &c. 148

general appearance and motions, is by no means uncommon
round Melbourne.

Mr. Gould writes as follows in his notice of this species :—
“JT first met with it in a state of nature on the small islands
in Bass’ Straits, where it had evidently been breeding, as I
observed several old nests in the barilla and other stunted
shrubs—its natural province is the ground, to which it habi-
tually resorts, and decidedly evinces a preference for spots of
a sterile and barren character; it trips along with amazing
swiftness, with a motion that can neither be described as a
hop or a run, but something between the two, accompanied
by a bobbing action of the tail. Of its nidification I regret
to say nothing is at present known.”

It may be met with in the dry portion of the swamps ex-
tending between the Saltwater and Yarra rivers. I discovered
its nest about four feet from the ground, in a stunted bush,
on the edge of the dense “ teatree” scrub which covers part
of that locality. The structure is cupshaped, somewhat deep,
and about four inches outside diameter; dried fibres, fine
twigs, and stalks form the exterior, and the lining is composed
of horsehair and fine grasses. It contained three fresh-laid
eggs; length, 11-16ths inch; extreme width, 17-32nds inch ;
shape, not much pointed ; ground-colour, white, with fine red-
brown markings, consisting of points, streaks, and roundish
dots, the larger markings being most abundant at the thicker
end, where they form a sort of wreath, while some of the
smaller ones are scattered over the other parts of the surface.
The markings are, in nearly every case, surrounded by a faint
ashy margin of their own colour, imitating the appearance of
their having been painted on the white ground before the
latter had properly dried, thus causing them partially to run
into the white surface. This seems to be a decided charac-
teristic in these eggs. The nest was discovered about October.

Mr. Dobrée then proceeded to make some general remarks on the most
interesting forms of nidification of Australian birds, in which respect, he
stated, this country maintained its reputation for singularity. He alluded to
the mound-raising Leipoa, or mallee-scrub pheasant, an egg of which he ex-
hibited ; the Yellow-tailed Acanthiza, of whose singular double-roomed pen-
dant nest a specimen was shown ; and remarked on the burrowing habits of
the Paradolotus, as well as the hanging structure of the Yellow-throated
Sericornis, which he produced for inspection, he also recurred to the fact of
the Australian representatives of the Cuckoo-family, though deprived of the
familiar note, differing in no way from their European cousins in the habit
of confiding their progeny to foster-parents. He further exhibited a valuable
collection of Australian eggs, including that of the Lyre-bird (Menura
superba) of which hitherto only a limited number of specimens have been

144 On the Nest and Eggs of the Coach-whip Bird, Sc.

obtained; and pointed out that many further observations were still desirable
for the completeness of information in this branch of natural history. He
remarked, in conclusion—

One of the secondary causes of the often noticed scarcity of
birds in Australia, as compared with England, is undoubtedly
that so many species here lay a much less number of eggs.
Amongst the commoner of Australian birds, the Honeyeaters
(Mcliphage) average 2, and some species only one solitary
egg; the Watilebirds (Antochere) 2 or 3; the Sericornis
tribe 8; the Fosterops 3; the Woodswallows (Artamis) 4, &c.,
and this opinion is corroborated by the fact that the few ex-
ceptional species whose individuals are really numerous, such
as the common quail (Cotarnix pectorelis) and the Parokeet
tribe are found to be large layers, the quail producing 11 to
14, and the parokeets 6 to 8 eggs. In England nearly all our
commoner birds average 5, or at least 4 eggs, and there are
many instances of a larger number. I said that this is a se-
condary cause, for Reason at once ascends higher in the scale,
and asks why it should be so arranged that only a limited
average is produced? Is it that this country would, in the case
of most species, not offer sufficient food of a suitable kind to
maintain a greater number of individuals, and therefore
the all-balancing hand of Nature has struck the present ad-
justment as the true one between supply and consumption ?
Or, to change the line of inquiry, can we entertain the notion
of a more recent origin of Australia, and thence deduct that
the scarcity of animal life is in some degree owing to the fact
that the same amount of time has not elapsed as in the older
countries to enable this continent to be stocked up to its full
capability ? However this latter may be, it is certain that the
rate of reproduction, as represented in the imstance of most
Australian birds, cannot be proceeding at a rate nearly equal
to the annual increase in many other countries. In order to
investigate fully this subject of the abundance or scarcity of
animal life, it would however be necessary to take into account
the different destroying causes in the countries under com-
parison, as well as the reproducing ones ; and altogether the
matter is one which deserves more than the few hasty glances
here incidentally bestowed on it.

On the Application of Galvanic Electricity, &e. 145

Art. VII—On the Application of Galvanic Electricity to
Practical Astronomy. By KR. J. L. Exviery, Ese., Govern-
ment Astronomer.

[Read before the Royal Society, August 27, 1860.]

Tue application of electro-dynamics to astronomical purposes
presents one of the most marked features in the history of
modern astronomy; and it is probable that without the
assistance of the electric current, no improvements that could
be devised in the optical construction of the instruments used
would secure the almost absolute precision we can now attain
in those observations in which the accurate determination of
time is of primary importance.

The application of electro-dynamics, styled indifferently
chronography and galvanic registration, has resulted in such
decided advantages in the great American and European ob-
servatories, into most of which it has been introduced, that
no observatory of any pretensions can be considered complete
without it.

The aim of my paper this evening is not so much to enter
upon the history and successive improvements made in this
application of electricity, as to describe to the society the
manner in which it has been adopted in the Astronomical
Observatory of this colony, and especially to call attention to
a recently constructed chronographic apparatus, which will
be of great assistance in making the astronomical observa-
tions in connection with the geodetic survey.

The first use of the galvanic current in astronomical ob-
serving was made by Professr Locke, of the United States,
as early as 1849, and although its successive adoption in
various observatories has led to many improvements and
modifications of the original mechanical arrangements, the
principle remains the same. The general form of the appa-
ratus may be described as consisting of an electro-telegraphic
register, with a double system of electro magnets and indent-
ing styles, each system having a separate galvanic circuit.

The chronographic apparatus now in use at the Astro-
nomical Observatory may be thus described :—

The register, with the exception of its possessing a double

L

146 On the Application of Galvanic Electricity

system of electro magnets and levers, is in all respects similar
to Morse’s Telegraphic Recorder, which is the instrument
used in the telegraph offices m this colony. By means of a
weight and regulating train of clock-work, a fillet of paper is
kept moving between two small rollers at a pretty uniform
rate of an inch per second; and the armatures and levers are
so arranged, that, when acted on by the electro magnets,
they indent the paper as it runs between the rollers in paral-
lel jines, about half an mch apart. The mdenting styles are
placed in a line perpendicular to the margin of the fillet, so
that if the action of the two electro magnets be coincident,
the two indentations will be exactly in the same pomt with
relation to the length of the paper. The clock-work is wound
up by a key, but there being no maintaining power, this can-
not be done during the working of the apparatus. The regu-
lation of the train is attained by a simple “ fanfly,” and can
be stopped at any moment by means of a catch pressing
against the fly arbor. The clock-work will run regularly for
a quarter of an hour.

The voltaic circuits, for working the electro magnets, are
two: the clock circuit, and the observing circuit.

The observing cireuit is thus arranged, a battery of three
cells of Daniel’s or Smee’s combination being generally used
for producing the currents. From one pole of the battery a
wire is led to one terminal of the electro magnet of the cir-
cuit, from the other terminal a wire is led to the purs of the
transit instrument, and then up the side of the purs to wooden
frames fitting round them, where it is connected with an in-
sulated portion or anvil of a small telegraphic key; a wire
attached to the cther portion, or hammer of the key, is led
to the opposite pole of the battery, and thus, with the excep-
tion of the interval between the hammer and the anvil of the
key, the circuit is complete. A slight pressure of the finger ~
on the key will complete the ciyeuit, when the electro magnet
attracting the armature, causes the style to indent the paper.
The indentation, when the paper is in motion, will be in the
form of a dot or a stroke, as the pressure on the key is mo-
mentary or prolonged. The keys are so arranged that in
whatever position he may be observing, there is always one
convenient to the right hand of the observer.

The clock circuit, which includes the astronomical clock,
is double, in consequence of the necessity of introducing
what is known as a relay magnet, whose office will be pre-
sently described.

to Practical Astronomy. 147

From one pole of a three-celled battery a wire is led toa
terminal of the electro-magnet of the clock circuit, and a
wire also connects the other terminal with the relay, where
it ends ina platinum point on the top of the armature lever ;
the other pole of the battery is connected directly with the
relay, and ends also in a platinum point, close and opposed to

the other. The circuit of this system is therefore incomplete

only by the separation of the two platinum points above men-
tioned, which are kept apart by means of a delicate spring.
The second circuit includes the clock contact apparatus, and
the delicate electro magnet of the relay, and may be thus
traced :—A pole of a single cell battery is connected by a
wire directly with one of two springs, which are a portion of
the contact apparatus of. the astronomical clock; the other
pole is connected to one terminal of the relay magnet coil,
whose other terminal is connected by a wire with the second
spring of the clock contact; this circuit then is only incom-
plete by the separation of the two springs.

The ‘clock contact” is thus arranged :—An extra wheel of
sixty conical teeth is fixed in the escape wheel arbor of the
astronomical clock; adelicate spring, with a jewelled pallet, is
so placed that when the clock is at rest the pallet drops into
the angle between the teeth; at the back of this spring is a
little platinum stud; another spring, with a platinum stud, is
placed just behind this, and is so adjusted that a slight lift-
ing of the front spring brings the two platinum studs into
contact.

When the clock is going, the escape wheel revolves once in
a minute, and the extra wheel moves one tooth each second,
which in passing presses against the pallet, and lifts the spring
just sufficiently to bring the studs into contact for an instant,
and so on for each second. One of the teeth of the contact
wheel is filed down, so that it passes without lifting the
spring, and the seconds’ hand is so placed that it points at 60
on the dial when this short tooth comes to the pallet. The
two springs are firmly but separately attached to a block of
insulating material, which is itself screwed to the front plate
of the clock, so that the springs are insulated from the clock
works and from each other. There are screw adjustments
for regulating the lift of the front spring and the distance
between the studs.

The object of introducing a relay magnet into the clock
circuit is to avoid the oxydization of the platinum studs in the
clock contact, which would result from using directly a battery

L 2

148 On the Application of Galvanic Electricity

sufficiently powerful to work the register magnet. The oxydi-
zation would give rise to imperfect contact, and the necessity
of frequently disturbing the clock works in order to re-polish
the springs, which of course should be avoided if possible. —

The operation of the clock circuit will now be readily un-
derstood. The “contact” being made every second by the
clock itself, the current from the one-celled battery causes
the relay magnet to attract its armature, thus brmgmeg the
two platinum points of the relay before mentioned ito con-
tact; the contact completes the circuit from the battery to
the clock register, whose magnet immediately attracts the
armature and lever, causing the style to indent the paper.
This action being repeated every second, coincidently with the
oscillations of the clock pendulum, if the paper be put in
motion, a series of dots about an inch apart is made on it as
it passes through the rollers, every sixtieth dot being left out
by reason of the short tooth in the extra wheel, this serving
to mark the commencement of each minute.

The following 1s the mode of observing with this instrument,
as practised in our Observatory :—

After seeing that the circuits are complete, the register and
relay in good adjustment, and the seconds’ dots being plainlyin-
dented on the paper, the observer proceeds to make his observa-
tion. Let it be, for stance, the transit of a star over the wires
of his transit instrument :—The instrument being in position,
and the observer seated at the transit instrument, he watches
for the stars’ approach to the first wire; when near it, he re-
leases the detent of the clock train of the register, and the
paper commences to move through the rollers indented at
each second by the clock circuit. Immediately the star ap-
pears behind the wire, he touches the key for an instant, and
the style of the observing circuit indents the paper; he does
this for each wire, until the observation is complete, when he
stops the chronograph—always taking care before he stops it
that a minute space has occurred on the paper during the
observation, in order that the seconds may be dated; if it has
not, he must let it run till one occurs; andit is usual to mark
this space with the number of the minute at once, to facilitate
‘reading off,” as well as to indicate by a number or symbol
the object observed. Of course, if several observations are
being made in quick succession, the instrument is not stopped
till the series is complete.

It is the custom at the Observatory to “read off” every

morning, unless the result of any observation be required at
t

to Practical Astronomy. 149

once, the fillet used in the previous night’s work, and with
a needle point puncturing in the lines of seconds perpendi-
cular and corresponding to each dot made by the observer’s
circuit. The seconds’ dots are then counted from the minute
spaces ; the number of the second dot preceding any puncture
is noted, and the fraction represented by the position of the
puncture with relation to the dot is measured by a small
transparent conical scale, by which means any little irregu-
larity in the length of the seconds’ spaces is rectified. The
“reading off” is directly transcribed into the transit-book.

The usual mode of observing without the chronographic
apparatus is styled the eye-and-ear method, and a short
description of it will at once make the superiority of chrono-
graphy obvious.

In observing by the eye-and-ear method, the clock or
chronometer must be in such a position that the movements
of the hands on the dial shall be visible, and the “ beats” of
the pendulum or balance distinctly audibie to the observer.
Shortly before the occurrence of any astronomical phenome-
non, such as the transit of a star, he observes the time of the
clock, “taking up”’ the beats, mentally counting them until
the star passes the first wire, when he writes down on his
observing slip the corresponding seconds indicated ; and if it
occurs between any two consecutive seconds, he estimates as
nearly as he can the fraction of a second also. For a com-
plete transit, this has to be done over several wires, writing
down the times between cach observation. It has been
found that 15 seconds are required to observe and record for
each wire, and to “take up” the “beats” again without
hurry. The wires, therefore, are generally arranged so that
an equatorial star shall take 15 or 16 seconds to pass from
one to another. The time required to complete a transit
observation over seven wires of a star having a declination of
45 degrees, is over two minutes; and the utmost precision
that can be attained by the best observers, under the most
favorable circumstances, in a mean of seven wires, is limited
to one-tenth of a second, and it is very much to be doubted
if anything near this precision is ever attained.

Two different observers will seldom agree as to the exact
instant of a transit or occultation, owing to what is known
as personal equation, the precision of combining the visual
impression of the observations with the sound of the clock-
beats depending much on the age, temperament, and health
of the observer. When several individuals, therefore, are

150 On the Application of Galvanic Electricity

employed in an observatory, it becomes a matter of the first
importance to determine their personal equations, in order
that all observations may be reduced to a standard.

In the chronographic method no listening to the clock is
required—the clock may be in another apartment, if neces-
sary—no recording by the observer durmg the observation is
needed, so that the intervals between the wires may be re-
duced from fifteen to three seconds ; the observer’s attention
can be entirely confined to the observation itself, and is not
distracted between observing, listening, and writing, and the
precision attainable is at least ten times as great as by the
old method. Personal equation is greatly reduced, if not
eliminated.

Any one acquainted with the principles of physiology will
at once perceive the great superiority of the chronographic
registration over the eye-and-ear method. In the latter we
have two totally distinct external impressions, the view of the
star crossing the field of the imstrument, and the sound of
the clock-beats which require to be mentally counted at the
same time; while i the method now adopted we have only
the one external impression—the view of the star. The
mental operation involved, in coinciding thus with the touch
of the finger on the key, being so rapid as to be almost map-
preciable.

Again, the record on the register-paper is permanent, and
in case of an error in transcribing, can be afterwards referred
to; whereas there is nothing but the memory to fall back
upon in case of an erroneous record by the eye-and-ear
method. The amount of observing in a given time can be
nearly ten times as much, and with very little labor to the
observer. In cataloguing stars this becomes a great object.

One clock is sufficient for any number of instruments ; and
in our Observatory we use the chronograph not only for the
transit but for prime, vertical, and other extra meridianal
observations, by leading wires from the observing circuit to
the different instruments used. Wires are also carried from
the Lighthouse, where, by means of a key, observations which
are being made for the astronomical ayzmuths of the different
trigonometrical stations can be directly recorded on the
chronographic paper, so that the otherwise troublesome and
often difficult determination becomes as easy and precise as
observations made in a fixed observatory.

Considering the benefits derived from the adoption of
chronographic registration in our permanent observatory, I

to Practical Astronomy. 151

was anxious to devise some means by which it could also be
adapted to the shifting observatories used in the geodetic
survey. Here, large clocks bemg of course out of the ques-
tion, the great difficulty was the mechanical arrangement by
which the “clock contact”? could be made with an ordinary
marine chronometer—a difficulty so great that, so far as I
am aware, it has not been previously overcome. After several
experiments I was enabled to plan an appliance, which has
been admirably constructed by a watchmaker at Williams-
town, and is found to work perfectly, without interfermg
with the rate of the chronometer. It consists of an extra
wheel, of 60 teeth, which is in the seconds’ arbor, the teeth
conical, with a slight rake, and, as in the astronomical clock,
one tooth is cut out as a minute data. The great delicacy
required in adapting contact springs, without producing un-
due friction, offered the chief obstacle ; but by placing the
opposing surfaces of the teeth and pallet at the most favorable
angle, and arranging so that the shghtest lift of the pallet
broke contact, stead of making it, the principal difficulty
was overcome. ‘The contact here is the reverse of that in the
clock ; for when the pallet is in the angle between two teeth,
the spring dauks on a platina stud, and the contact is com-
plete ; but each passing tooth lifts it sufficiently to break
contact for an instant. This peculiarity would, of course,
cause a registering style to make a long stroke and a short
space; but the same effect as in the “ clock contact”? can be
attained by a modified relay, or reversed lever in the re-
gister,

The success of this appliance to a chronometer at once ad-
mits of a perfectly portable chronograph being arranged, and
I have had a register constructed to complete the apparatus.

The fillet-paper used in the Observatory, although offering
several advantages, would be very inconvenient for a portable
chronograph ; the plan of the register, therefore, is different
altogether to the one in the Observatory.

A metal drum, six inches in diameter, and eight in length,
covered with fine cloth, is made to revolve on a horizontal
axis in about 35 seconds, by means of a weight and clock-
work, regulated by a conical pendulum. <A small waggon or
carriage is made to traverse smoothly and easily on a rail-
way, in a direction parallel to the axis of the drum: this car-
riage carries the electro-magnets, levers, and styles, which
are so adjusted that when the electro-magnets are brought
into action, the styles will impinge on the drum. ‘The move-

152 On the Application of Galvanic Electricity, &c.

ment of the waggon is regulated by the clock-work, and
during the working of the apparatus it progresses on the rail
about a quarter of an inch for every revolution of the barrel.

In using the apparatus, the drum has to be covered with a
proper sheet of paper, which is fitted on damp, the joming
edges being gummed together with isinglass. To do this
conveniently, the drum is made so that it can be removed
from its bearings very readily. When the paper is dry, and
all the connections and adjustments made perfect, the imstru-
ment is ready for use. On setting the train in motion, the
drum will revolve slowly and uniformly on its axis, and the
waggon, with its electro-magnets and styles, also moves in the
direction of the barrel axis. The two circuits are similar to
those in the Observatory, and require no further explanation.

One style punctures the seconds transmitted by the chro-
nometer circuit, the other punctures the observation record ;
and the two sets of punctures are distinguished by their size.
The relative motions of the drum and waggon causes the two
series of punctures to assume the form of a spiral lime around
the cylinder. In order that the styles may not stop the
cylinder, if they happen to remain in the paper for a longer
time than is required, they are allowed to follow the motion
of the cylinder a little, but when they are withdrawn from
the paper, by means of a spring, they immediately resume
their proper position.

The reading off is performed in a similar manner to that
of the fillet register, but it is necessary to remove the paper
from the cylinder before this can be done.

In conclusion, I would remark that there is nothing ori-
ginal in the chr onographs used at the Observatory, the clock
contact being very similar to the one used at» Greenwich, and
the register is of the most usual form. ‘The portable chro-
nograph, as far as the register is concerned, is a modification
of one lately made for the Altona Observatory, the chro-
nometer contact beimg the only portion which, I believe, has
any claim to originality.

Suggestions for the Introduction of Animals, &c. 153

Arr. VIII.—Suggestions for the Introduction of Animals and
Agricultural Seeds into Victoria. By W. Locxnart
Morton, Esq.

[Read before the Royal Society of Victoria, October Sth, 1860.]

Tue subject which I have the honor this evening of bringing
under the notice of this Society, bears directly upon the ma-
terial welfare and advancement of this colony ; and it is thus
invested with more than ordinary interest, claims more than
ordinary mention, and deserves that full consideration which
I trust it will receive.

For a lengthened period the condition of this country has
occupied much of my deepest thought, and I have come to
this conclusion, that if lasting prosperity is to be attained at
all, it must be through industry applied to the cultivation of
the soil, as well as to gold-mining ; not indeed for the growth
of cereals, to any great extent, because our market is too
limited for that ; but for the production of all such articles
as are valued and cultivated in other lands, and for which a
good return could be obtained by exportation now, or by the
establishment of manufactures hereafter. Actuated by this
conviction, I began to endeavour to find out what seeds and
plants are cultivated, and what animals are reared and kept
with the greatest amount of profit in other countries of the
world. A little inquiry was sufficient to make known that
nearly every country is m possession of seeds and animals of
great value altogether unknown to the rest ofthe world. The
question next to be settled was, how can this colony obtain the
valuable seeds, plants, and animals, of other countries. It
occurred to me that the only proper way to accomplish so
desirable an end was to suggest the formation of an associa-
tion for the express purpose ; hitherto, however, I have met
with no success inthis matter. I therefore determined to try
a different course, which will be made known and best ex-
plained by the following letter, which I addressed to His
Excellency the Governor :—

* To His Excellency Sir Henry Barkly, K.C.B., Governor of Victoria, &c.
**Srr,—Knowing how deep an interest you feel in whatever is
calculated to benefit the Colony, and Australia generally, I have the honor

154 Suggestions for the Introduction of Animals

to lay before Your Excellency the following proposal, bearing upon the intro-
duction of new and valuable seeds, plants, and animals into this colony.

‘Every country is in possession of distinct forms of vegetable or animal
life, of perhaps great value, yet known only to men of science, whereas, if
some means were adopted for their distribution throughout the world, a
universal benefit would be conferred upon mankind.

‘In order that this object may be attained, for the advantage of the
world generally, and this colony particularly, I have the honor to sug-
gest that Your Excellency should forward a request to the Foreign
Office, that a circular may be sent, in the name of Your Excellency,
to the Ministers of Foreign States, and to the English Consuls at foreign
ports, containing a proposal that collections should be made in each
country of all its most valuable seeds, and that a portion of each variety
should be forwarded to Your Excellency, upon the understanding that
this colony will most gladly reciprocate.

‘*T have the honor of further suggesting, that if a list of questions, such
as are hereto attached, were forwarded along with the circular, the most
valuable information might be distributed throughout the world, by the
answers received. ‘

‘¢T have the honor to be,
** Your Excellency’s most obedient servant,

‘*WitttaAmM LockHAartT Mormon.”

LIST OF QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED.

What animals are esteemed of greatest value in your coun-
try, and for what quality are they so esteemed ?

Could they be procured, and with what facilities ?

What valuable seeds and plants grow in your country ; and
which are esteemed and cultivated most ?

Will you be good enough to state, in reference both to ani-
mals and seeds, every particular necessary for the proper
management of the former, and what description of soil and
climate, and what mode of cultivation, are most suitable for
the latter ?

Will you please to give immediate instructions to some
competent authority to make, without delay, a full collection
of all the most valuable seeds grown in your country—inclu-
sive of the most esteemed agricultural seeds generally culti-
vated for cereal crops, and forward the same (carefully
packed to stand the long sea transit) to His Excellency the
Governor of Victoria, who will in exchange send to your
country a full collection of Australian seeds ?

In answer to the above communication, I promptly received
the following letter from His Excellency’s Private Secretary :

‘* Private Secretary’s Office, '
‘¢ September 27th, 1860.

‘“*Srr,—I am directed by the Governor to state, with reference to your
proposal for the introduction of new and valuable plants, seeds, and animals
into this colony, that His Excellency fully concurs with you as to the *mpor-

and. Agricultural Seeds into Victoria. 155

tance of setting a movement of the sort on foot, but would suggest that you
should endeavour to secure the co-operation of the Royal Society of Victoria ;
in whose name applications might be made with a greater amount of weight,
and under whose auspices the best mode of proceeding might be arranged.

The aid also of the Legislature would seem to be needed, as the collection
and transmission even of seeds would entail considerable trouble and ex-
pense, which it would scarcely be sufficient to meet by holding out a prospect
of reciprocity hereafter.

**Tam, Sir, your obedient servant,

‘*Q, F, Trys, Private Secretary.
Mr. William Lockhart Morton.”

It is only within the last few days that I have learned that
in the year 1854 a society was formed in France, and during
the past year, one in England, for attaining the same objects
as those embodied in the foregoing suggestions. I do not now
think that it will be necessary to organize such a society here,
if this Society will agree to take the matter up, or form a
section for that purpose; in which case immediate communi-
cation might be entered into with the French and English
societies. But, even if this should be done, I think it would
nevertheless be desirable to follow up the suggestions which
I had the honour of offering to His Excellency, because they
seem to point out the best channel for obtaining the most
full information; and, as other existing societies may possibly
not have thought of the same means, a vast amount of valu-
able information. may be thereby gathered, for their use as
well as for ours.

It may be thought that in Australia there are very few
animals or seeds which could be given in exchange for those
of other countries; but, if Australian productions are deficient
in intrinsic value, they make up for that want in their singu-
larity. There arein Australia more useful plants and animals,
however, than common observers are aware of.- Throughout
tropical and extropical Australia are several plants which may
hereafter be regarded as highly valuable for their medicinal
virtues. Amongst the feathered tribes, the genus Columba
is well represented. Perhaps the largest and smallest varieties
of pigeons to be found in the world are natives of this conti-
nent. In the Wonga Wonga we have a pigeon nearly equal
in size to the common fowl, while there is another sort so
small that it resembles the house sparrow. These, and some
other varities, as well as a small pheasant, might be domes-
ticated. They could be easily obtained from Rockhampton.
There is also to be got the brush turkey, which, like our own
lowen, lays its eggs in heaps of sand, mixed with vegetable

156 Suggestions for the Introduction of Animals

matter, to produce fermentation, and thereby generate heat.
In addition to the many interesting seeds and plants, as well
as fruits discovered by Dr. Leichhardt—amongst which may
be mentioned the bean of the Mackenzie, which that distin-
guished explorer considered as a good substitute for coffee,
the clustering fig tree, and the seeds producing the same effect
as cantharides when applied to the skin; it is now known
that on some of the beautiful islands of the north-east coast an
excellent ground-nut grows in the utmost profusion. In re-
ference to the advantages that would be secured to this colony
by the introduction of seeds and animals from other parts of
the world, I would beg leave to mention the field that exists
here for the growth of those trees upon which the silk-worm
feeds, and for the production of silk. We all know that the
castor oil tree, or the Palma Christi, grows well in this colony,
and it is on the leaves of this tree that the wild Indian silk-
worms are fed. But by far the best variety of silk-worms we
can obtain is one that can be readily got from the province
of Canton, in China. This description of worm feeds upon
a species of Xanthoxylum, which, on account of its aromatic
and pungent properties, is generally called a pepper tree. Its
bark and capsular fruit is much used as a remedy for tooth-
ache, and also instead of pepper. This tree or shrub, then,
would be of value on its own account, but the more so because
it yields the proper food for those silk-worms which produce
the best Chinese silk, and in such quantity that, in abundance
as well as in quality, this species of worm excels all others.
But what renders this species particularly valuable for this
colony is the circumstance that little attention requires to be
bestowed upon the worms. They are wild silk-worms, and
do better when left to themselves. Another important fact
connected with them is, that the same worm will do equally
well on the leaves of the ash tree (which in China is nearly
identical with the English ash tree).

I may also allude to an important variety of sheep that
might be obtained from Ladakh, or Middle Thibet, a high
and rugged country north of the Punjab. This is the Purek
sheep; when full grown it is scarcely the size of a South-
down lamb of five or six months old, yet in the fineness and
weight of its fleece, and in the flavour of its mutton, added
to its peculiarities of feeding and constitution, it yields not,
says a traveller, in merit to any race of sheep hitherto dis-
covered. It thrives where vegetation is hardly discernible.
It gives two lambs within the twelve months, is shorn twice

and Agricultural Seeds into Victoria. 157

in the same period, and yields on an average three pounds of
wool per annum.

The black Astracan sheep is another variety of sheep that
might be introduced. This produces wool only inferior to that
of Cashmere. It feeds on furze or dry grass. Its flesh is
sweet and well-flavoured. It is found in Karakool, a small
canton between Bokhara and the Oxus; but it has been al-
leged that it will thrive in no other place—that it has been
transported to Persia and other countries without success.

The Yak (the bos poephagus ov poephagus grunniens) is another

valuable animal. This animal, sometimes called the grunting
ox, is found in Thibet. It is a first-rate milker. The males
make good workers or beasts of burden. It has long pendant
hair, of which a kind of coarse clothis made. The skins, when
tanned, form excellent rugs. The skins of the young are
curly, very beautiful, and are much esteemed.

I cannot lose the present opportunity of remarking that it is
possible to think so much of those things we have not got, that
the value of those things we actually have may be overlooked.
I think the fine-woolled merimo sheep furnishes a case in point.
Instead of trymg to improve the qualities of this valuable
animal, it is about to be displaced by coarse-woolled varieties.
The result will be felt in a few years, when, by the increase
of this description of stock, without a corresponding augmen-
tation of the population, the fleece must assuredly come to be
regarded as of more value than the carcass.

Again, we have already in the colony many things the value
of which is known only to the scientific, or not recognized by
the practical agriculturist, as of any value w hatever. The
sunflower, the Palma Christi, and the Ag gave Americana are
examples ‘of this. All these grow well here. The latter, as
the American aloe, is to be seen in our gardens, growing in
the utmost vigour and luxuriance, but itis not esteemed as of
any value, yet it may be cultivated as a hedge row; the leaves
may be used, as they are in Spain, as scouring paper; their
essence may be made into a soap that is equally efficient in
salt and in fresh water; and from them a valuable medicine
also is extracted ; whilst an admirable bed can be manufac-
tured from the fibres of the leaves. A sample of this fibre,
both in its natural colour and dyed black, is at present on the
table. This is an article only recently introduced into the
colony, by Mr. White, opposite to the Hospital, and, ap-
parently, is superior to much of the horse-hair now used for
the general purposes of the upholsterer.

158 On a Deposit of Diatomacee at South Yarra.

Art. 1X.—On a Deposit of Diatomacee at South Yarra. By
Joun Coates, M.R.C.S.L', South Yarra.

[Read before the Royal Society of Victoria, October 8th, 1860.]

Ar the last meeting of the Royal Society, some microscopic
organisms were exhibited by my friend, Mr. Ralph, from the
mud of a swamp near the Yarra, where the Melbourne and
Suburban Railway crosses that river. During the interval
that has intervened, this deposit has been the subject of more
careful and extensive examination, and in the results which
I have the honor to submit to your inspection this evening,
it will be shown that in the locality of South Yarra there is
a vast and interesting field of infusorial remains, containing a
numerous variety of microscopic objects, not less remarkable
for their exquisite beauty and delicacy of structure, than for
the extreme profusion in which they are to be found. These
remains are generally silicious, and the extraordinary preser-
vation which they exhibit is due to this circumstance.

On thesouthern bank of the river Yarra, where the railway
operations are in progress, an embankment has had to be
carried across a small swamp to the bridge now in course of
erection. This swamp has its termination in the Yarra, ata
short distance to the westward of the line of railway, and
extends in a south-easterly direction beyond the Gardiner’s
Creek Road, serving as an outlet to the watershed of a large
portion of the municipal district of Prahran. As the material
to form the embankment alluded to was thrown upon the
surface of the swamp, the weight of the super-incumbent
earth, assisted by occasional heavy rains, burst up the soft
and spongy matter of the bog, and totally obstructed the
drainage, to which a reference has just been made. In order
to provide a remedy, the Railway Company have been
necessitated to dig up this boggy earth, preparatory to the
formation of a permanent outlet to the river ; ; and in the
material thus removed have been found those microscopic
and other organisms which are now brought under the
cognizance of the Society. Several specimens of the deposit
are placed upon the table this evening. In some of these,
marine shells, more or less perfect, pieces of cuttle-fish bone,

On «a Deposit of Diatomacee at South Yarra. 159

and the debris of echini, are obvious to the unassisted vision;
and by the aid of a common magnifier, numerous foramini-
ferous shells are also readily apparent. In other specimens
these larger objects become more rare, and their place
appears to be supplied by an increased number of micro-
scropic forms of the Diatomacee, which are occasionally met
with im such infinite profusion as to give the semblance of
frosted silver to the eye, and to render, in a remarkable
degree, the mass in which they are contained specifically
lighter than water. In every piece of this mud which has
come under observation, these diatoms have been found in
greater or less abundance; and from inquiries that have been
instituted, it is estimated that the swamp has a depth of not
less than sixty feet! How vast has been the extent of life
within this limited area, and how immeasurably the results of
actual examination of the exquisite beauty and delicate
tracing of these minute organisms transcend any ordinary
efforts of imagination to conceive, can only be appreciated by
the revelations of the microscope.

The great improvements which have been effected during
the last few years im the achromatic microscope, the perfection
and precision to which it has attained as an instrument of the
highest value in the prosecution of scientific research, and
the increased and daily increasing numbers of those who resort
to its assistance in the pursuit of special branches of study,
or particular objects of inquiry, are rapidly enlarging the
boundaries of our knowledge in every portion of the world,
and in every department of philosophical investigation. It
has been well remarked that he who sees with the naked eye
only sees but half that world which God has made. Beyond
the limit of man’s natural vision the microscope has disclosed
another world whose first characteristic consists in the
minuteness of its organisms; but in the study of those
apparently insignificant forms, have been solved some of the
highest problems in the history of organization. Hence, the
family of the Diatomacee has many points of peculiar interest.
Their presence in almost every running stream, in every
little pool of stagnant water, as well as in the lowest depths
of the ocean, their use and application, as the severest tests of
the excellence and efficiency of our microscopic object-glasses
—the imconceivably delicate and minute markings of the
silicious coverings of many of their forms—the peculiarities
of their structure, development, and reproduction—and the
wonderful offices which they perform in the admirable eco-

160 On a Deposit of Diatomacee at South Yarra.

nomy of infinite wisdom and intelligence, as “the invisible
scavengers of nature,” have made them the subjects of de-
lightful and instructive study, wherever the means of their
examination by the microscope have extended. ‘As a group
of simple organisms they present us with the first struggles
of life against the physical and chemical forces of mere matter;
and it is by the observation and determination of these
elementary forms that we are enabled to proceed, in the spirit
of true philosophy, to the accurate investigation of higher
forms of structure ; and thus the theory of cell-formation, as
carefully elaborated under the scrutiny of the microscope,
has become the foundation of all our certain knowledge of
vegetable organization.”

These objects, then, so apparently trivial to ordinary ob-
servers, possess a degree of interest, actual and relative, which
is far beyond their nominal position in the scale of scientific
arrangement. In the present state of our nomenclature, the
family of the Diatomacee occupies a kind of anomalous situa-
tion between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, in exhibit-
ing certain characteristics of both. Ehrenberg and some
other microscopists have placed them among the lowest forms
of animal life; while the late Professor William Smith, in
his laborious monograph of the British Diatomacez, Professor
Carpenter, and a host of other celebrated observers, have un-
hesitatingly described them as belonging to the vegetable
kingdom. The preponderance of opmion undoubtedly inclines
to their vegetable nature, notwithstanding the power of inde-
pendent locomotion, and the presence “of ciliary actions,
which some species have been ascertained to exhibit. What-
ever doubt may exist on this subject, appears to arise from
the difficulty of reconciling the movements which accompany
the vital functions of the Diatomacee with the prevalent
conditions of plant life, and of harmonizing their silicious
epiderms with the ordimary forms under which cellulose
occurs throughout the vegetable kingdom. On the other hand,
it will be remembered that most decided movements are pre-
sent in the Oscillatorie, and that silica is ever constant in the
structure of the epiderm of the Hguisitacee and the Grami-
nacee. An enlarged consideration of these and other facts,
therefore, conduces to the view that the Diatomacee, with
specialities of their own, have intimate alliances with the
other orders of Unicellular Algze, and belong to the vegetable,
rather than the animal kingdom.

The forms which these “objects present in a living state

On a Deposit of Diatomacee at South Yarra. 161

are exceedingly various. Some are filamentous, and in the
early stages of their growth very closely resemble the Con-
Serve. Instead of the usual ochreous brown colour of their
cell-contents, a batch of Melosira, which I lately found in a
brackish pool near the Yarra, exhibited a bright confervoid
green in the younger filaments, but gradually passing into
the normal brown, as the more perfect orbicular characters of
the frustules become dev eloped. Other genera are connected
by the angles of their frustules, in a kind of zig-zag chain,
disrupted ‘by the slightest touch, from which arises the term
of ‘ Brittleworts ”” in common vernacular language, as de-
scriptive of the whole family. Other forms again are invested
with a gelatinous envelope, resembling that which is found to
exist in some genera of the Desmids; while by far the greater
number is composed of single frustules only, becoming dupli-
cate in the process of self-division, which characterizes this
and its allied famihes.

The circumstances attending the remarkable preservation
of these minute and delicate organizations are deserving of
notice. The silicious epiderm by which they are invested,
has served to perpetuate their forms in numerous localities
from which they have long since disappeared in a living
condition. In several place s in the British Islands, in
Europe, Africa, America, and the Indies, familiar by name at
least to the microscopist, the long-hidden records of infu-
sorial organisms have been disentombed, since the silica of
which their frustules is composed forms one of the least
perishable materials with which we are acquainted. The city
if Richmond, in Virginia, is said by Professor Smith to be
built upon a stratum of these remains, eighteen feet in thick-
ness ; and extensive tracts, even in the Arctic and Antarctic
regions, have been stated to be formed of similar deposits. It
is with some degree of satisfaction that the name of South
Yarra is now added to the list of these remarkable places, as
a rich habitat of the fossil Diatomacee in Victoria; and with
the hope that, while these varied and beautiful objects afford
that pleasure which, in scientific pursuits, has its own reward,
they may also serve to train the eye and mind to habits of
correct and careful observation in our young microscopists,
and stimulate to still higher and nobler fields of investigation.

The deposit, when it is recently turned up, has in general
a very dark appearance, and the consistence of a soft tena-
cious clay. After a few days exposure to our warm swmmer
weather,it dries into a greyish coloured substance, and becomes

M

162 On a Deposit of Diatomacee at South Yarra.

occasionally so light and friable, that the passing breeze will
often float away the loosened diatoms from the surface of the
specimen under examimation. Mixed with other clay, it has
been used for making bricks, but durmg the process of burn-
ing, the amount of contraction and distortion which super-
vened rendered them utterly worthless for economical pur-
poses, but exceedingly interesting and beautiful as opaque
microscopic objects. In separating the diatoms, the ordi-
nary routine has been followed, which is described in the
Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science. Repeated wash-
ings in water will be necessary as a preliminary operation, and
then the action of acids and chlorate of potash, to clean the
objects from the organic matters which accompany them.

In a former part of this paper allusion has been made to
the presence of undoubted marine shells, and of numbers of
Foraminifere i certain portions of this deposit; and it is
also worthy of observation, that the clay in which these most
abound, is characterised by fewest of the Diatomacee. It
seems therefore an obvious and rational conclusion, that at
one time, probably not very remote, the waters of Port Phil-
lip Bay must have covered this locality. Subsequently, as the
land became elevated, and the communication with the sea
interrupted, but not altogether closed, it is not improbable
that here was formed a sort of lagoon, or salt-water marsh,
highly favourable to the growth and development of the
Diatomacee in immense myriads. That this period must have
been one of considerable duration, seems evident from the
large quantities of their silicious shields in particular parts of
the deposit ; and during the further elevation of the land, it
is possible that an interruption of fresh water nto this lagoon
suddenly destroyed the vitality of the organisms, leaving their
remains in exquisite preservation, as a rich legacy to micro-
scopic science.

In the careful examination of this deposit, upwards of fifty
different forms of diatoms may be found, in addition to
spicula of sponge, and the object known as Dictyocha. While
some of the forms are exceedingly rare, others are very abun-
dant; among which is the beautiful species of Actinocyclus,
to which I have ventured to give the name of His Excellency,
the President of this Society.

1. Actinocyclus Barklyi. Valve convex, with central
nodule; striz moniliform, arranged in radiating lines, and di-
minishing in number towards the centre; no pseudo-marginal

On a Deposit of Diatomacee at South Yarra. 163

nodule; margin of the valve having fine markings, direct and
oblique; diameter of frustule .0111 to .0074.

OO Tig (G0! 89

. Actinocyclus duodenarius.
Coscinodiscus radiatus.
Coscinodiscus eccentricus.
Campylodiscus clypeus.
Campylodiscus cribrosus.
Campylodiscus Hodgsonii.
Campylodiscus parvulus.
Stauroneis pulchella.
Stauroneis acuta.

. Hydrosera triquetra (rare).
. Navicula elliptica.

. Navicula ovalis.

. Navicula Amphisbeena.

. Nayicula tumens.

. Navicula pusilla.

. Nayicula minutula.

Nayicula (new variety). Valve elliptical, extremities

rounded, striz transverse in lateral and two narrow central
bands, delicate, 34 in. OO".

19:
20.
al.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.

Pineiee rin nobilis.
Pinnularia major.
Pinnularia stauroneiformis.
Pinnularia distans.
Pinnularia acuminata.
Orthosira marina.

Melosira
Hyalodiscus subtilis. Valve having a central granu-

lated dise, with clear transparent margin, with fine decussat-
ing markings ; diameter .01 to .0074.

. Pleurosigma Balticum.
. Pleurosigma
. Pleurosigma
. Surr irella splendida.
. Surrirella striatula.

Gomphonema lanceolatum.

. Gomphonema cymbiforme.
. Epithemia turgida.

. Epithemia Westernannii.

. Himantidium arcut.

. Himantidium undulatum.
. Himantidium bidens.

. Himantidium gracile.

M 2

164 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

40. Achnanthes brevipes.

41. Achnanthes subsessilis.

‘42. Tryblionella gracilis.

43. Tryblionella marginata.

44. Cyclotella rectangula.

45, Cocconema lanceolatum.

46. Synedra, three forms; Tabellaria, Cyatibalta Nitzschia,

Cocconeis.

Art. X.—Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,
in particular of the Port Lincoln District. By CHARLES
WiLHELMI, Esq.

[Read before the Royal Society, October 29, 1860. ]

AttuoucH Australia, for a considerable time already, is
known to the world in general, very little, comparatively
speaking, has as yet been made known respecting the habits
and customs of its aboriginal inhabitants; very few persons
indeed have given themselves the trouble to note down what
they may have seen or may have been told by these children
of nature, in order that those who have not had such oppor-
tunities may be enabled to form a correct idea respecting
them.

My various botanical journeys, since 1849, have necessarily
brought me in frequent contact with them, when it always
has been most interesting to me closely to watch the different
customs and habits of this race of mankind.

During my two visits to Port Lincoln, I have had many
opportunities for making observations respecting the natives
there, which were the more interesting, as these people, at
that time, had as yet been so little interfered with by civili-
zation.

To the Rev. Mr. Schurmann, however, I am most particu-
larly indebted for his valuable communications on this subject.

This gentleman, in 1840, about twenty-one years ago, had
been appointed Protector of the aborigines of Port Lincoln,
and has occupied this office for nearly six years. After

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 165

having then removed to Adelaide and Encounter Bay, in
his capacity of missionary, he returned after a few years’
absence to his old post at Port Lincoln. Fully conversant
with their language, he easily obtained the most complete
information as to the living and occupation of the tribes of
that particular district. Durimg my stay with him in 1851,
twenty-four native children attended his school, and had then
made pretty considerable progress in reading, writing, &c.,
which was rendered the more easy to them by the advantage
that all information was by this most excellent man conveyed
to them in their own language.

It has been remarked that the population and general con-
dition of the natives of Australia greatly depend on the
nature of the locality they occupy; where the country is
sterile and unproductive, the natives are found to congregate
in small numbers, and to be in a miserable condition ; while,
on the contrary, in fertile districts they are comparatively
numerous, robust, and well made. The correctness of this
observation must have been apparent to every one who has
had the opportunity of comparing the natives of Port Lincoln
with those of the Adelaide and the Murray districts, in par-
ticular. The former are less in number, of smaller size,
weaker, and less expert, and not of so sociable a disposition
as the latter. A Port Lincoln black but very rarely exceeds
the height of a middle-sized European, and in reference
to bodily strength the comparison is more unfavorable still.
Among the Murray tribes, on the contrary, you will find
handsome, tall, and well-made men.

Striking peculiarities in the appearance of their body are
their miserably thin arms and legs, wide mouths, hollow deep
sunken eyes, and flat noses; if the latter are not naturally
so formed, they make them so by forcing a bone, a piece of
wood, or anything else through the sides of the nose, which
causes them to stretch. They generally have a well-arched
front, broad shoulders, and a particularly high chest.

The men possess a great deal of natural grace in the
carriage of their body, their gait is easy and erect, their
gestures are natural under all circumstances in their dances,
their fights, and while speaking, and they certainly sur-
pass the European in ease and rapidity of their move-
ments.

With respect to the women we cannot speak so favourably
by a great deal; their bodies are generally disfigured by ex-
ceedingly thin arms and legs, large bellies, and low hanging

166 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

breasts, a condition sufficiently accounted for by their early
marriages, their insufficient nourishment, their carrying of
heavy burdens, and the length of time they suckle their
children, for it is by no means uncommon for children to
take the breast for three or four years, or even longer.

Although a superficial observer will scarcely be able, on
account of the apparently great similarity prevailing among
them, to detect any difference in them, a closer intimacy
with them will easily trace very considerable varieties,
not of countenances and forms of body only, but also of
colours and skins even; while the skin of the tribes of the
north, which inhabit a rather scrubby country, is darker and
drier in appearance, that of the tribes of the south and the
westward, in many instances, approaches to what is termed
the copper colour. Whether this is attributable to the influ-
ence of the climate or the difference of the food, it is difficult to
decide. My valued friend, the Rey. Mr. Schurmann, however,
is inclined towards the opinion, that upon the whole the best
fed and most robust natives are of the lighter colours.

In reference to this subject, Dr. Livingstone makes the
following remark in his “‘ Missionary Travels and Researches
in South Africa” (page 78) :—‘‘ Heat alone does not produce
blackness, but heat with moisture seems to msure the deepest
hue.” He found that tribes living in the desert of Africa
were of a lighter colour than those near the rivers.

The covering they generally wear consists of one or two
kangaroo skins only, and seldom of rugs made of skins of
the wallaby, opossum, and similar animals, and which for
this purpose are prepared in the following manner :—The
skin, directly after bemg flayed, is spread—the flesh side
upwards—on an even smooth piece of ground, and fastened
by small wooden pegs, driven in along the ridges; when dried
the small fleshy fibres adhering to the skins are scraped off
with a sharp angular piece of quartz, and afterwards the
skins are well rubbed over with a coarse-grained stone, for
the purpose of making them soft and pliable. Thus prepared,
the skins are then sewed together with the sinews of the
tail of the kangaroo, a small sharp-pointed bone answering
admirably for the purpose. As these skins are never tanned,
the natives are required to be very careful in guarding the
flesh side against the wet, as it would make them hard and
stiff; on this account it is that during the rain the hairy side
is turned outside. The best rugs generally belong to the
women, and more particularly so if they have young children,

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 167

as they make them serve for covering both of them, while they
carry them on their backs, or while resting they have them
on their laps. Those children old enough to walk are
decidedly the worst off as regards covering, for they have to
run about quite naked, or be satisfied with the remnant of
some old used-up rug.

More for ornament than for any imaginable comfort, the
men wear a band of yarn round their heads, tying it round
several times, so as to leave the crown only uncovered by it.
They spin this yarn of human hair, or of that of the opossum,
using for the purpose a kind of spindle, about two feet long,
and not thicker than a goose quill, with a cross piece at one
end, on which they wind up the yarn spun. They turn or
roll this spindle on their legs, with their hands spread out
flat. If desirous to appear particularly decorated, they will
add to the above ornament a bunch of emu feathers, stuck
in their hair in front.

The Murray tribes, in the neighbourhood of Swan Hill, in
a similar way spin the fibres of the roots of the club rushes
(Typha Shuttleworthii) to any lengths, and employ it for
making their nets.

On occasions of rejoicings and of ceremonies, as, for
instance, at the meeting of two different tribes, they add two
small pieces of green wood, decorated from one end to the
other with very thin shavings, and which have the appearance
of a white plume of feathers, and these they stick behind
their ears through the above-mentioned band, in such a
manner that the upper ends can be joined in front, and thus,
at a distance, they have the appearance of two long horns.
Mr. Schurmann has seen this latter ornament only with one
tribe of the north-west, and it may perhaps be confined to it.
This ornament, together with their white and red painted
chest and arms, are said to produce quite the impression of
untamed savages.

Frequently they attach to the end of their pointed beards
the tip of the tail of a wild dog, or a wallaby. <A very par-
ticular ornament, however, they consider it to wind the
entire tail of a wild dog round their head, just above the
front.

The natives who come in frequent contact with Europeans,
instead of the latter ornament, make use of a rag of white or
red cloth, or else of even a piece of paper.

The men always wear round the waist a cord, generally
made of their own hair, being first spun, and then twisted

168 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

into a cord of about a quarter of an inch thick, and which at
times is interwoven with emu feathers. If they cannot have
one of this description, they will take any kind of cord
rather than do without one altogether. They always wear it
tight, but tighter if hungry, as they say, in order to allay the
painful sensation of hunger. I have seen these cords tied so
tightly, that in front they were perfectly hidden from obser-
vation.

The means which the natives, both males and fame)
mostly use and prefer to all others for beautifying themselves,
is fat; if well supplied, they rub their entire body over with
it; but if short of it, they confine themselves to anointing their
faces only. There can be no doubt that this custom has its
origin in some sound reasonable motive, and produces with
them a feeling of comfort, in hot weather particularly, when
the mosquitos and flies are exceedingly troublesome. They
will ask for a little fat as pitifully as for a piece of bread.
They compare this custom to that of Huropeans washing
themselves; they never appear in better humour than when
the fat is actually drippmg from the entire body, from head
to foot.

Dr. Livingstone, in his Travels in Africa, page 108, in
alluding to the custom of the Griquas and Bechuanas
rubbing their bodies with fat or oil, states, that probably
this is done ‘‘in order to assist in protecting the pores of the
skin from the influence of the sun by day, and of the cold by
night.”?

They use three colours i in painting themselves, viz.—black,
red, and white. The black and red colours are the produce
of a soft stone which they draw from a great distance in the
north; by rubbing or scraping it they obtain a powder, which
they rub into the fat which they have before put on their
faces, arms, and breasts; the colors then assume quite a
metallic lustre. The white colour is prepared of a soft clay
or chalk. It is applied on particular occasions only, among
others for dancing, and when in mourning. I shall, here-
after have the opportunity of stating more fully, how, for
dancing, they paimt themselves with this color. For mdicating
mourning, the women paint their whole front, a rmg round
each eye, and a perpendicular line about the stomach; but
the men paint the breast by making drawn or punctured
streaks down from the shoulders, all verging towards and
joining at the navel. The difference in the design of the
painting indicates the nearer or more remote degree of the

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 169

relationship with the deceased. The black colour, in some
parts, is also used for mourning, according to what Mr.
Schurmann has been able to ascertain, at the death of a
relation by marriage, while the white is used at the death of
blood relations. It thus becomes evident that the natives
do not paint themselves in one and the same manner, but
differently, according to the degrees of relationship between
them and the deceased, which is expressed by the various
designs.

The weapons of the natives of Port Lincoln are by no
means so handsome and respectable looking as those of the
Adelaide and Murray tribes, but are quite as efficient.

The spears are made of the stems of the young Lepto-
spermi (better known as the tea tree), which, hardened in -
hot ashes, they bend and sharpen. Their usual length is seven
feet and upwards, the thickness at the end of the root about
that of the thumb; in the upper end they bore with the tooth
of the kangaroo a perpendicular hole, in which, for throwing
it, they fit the hook of the wooden lever, called ‘“‘middla ;” and
in order to protect the edge of the hole against breaking or
splitting, they take the precaution to tie it well round with a
fine sew of the kangaroo. Among the number of spears
which every adult native carries with him, they generally
have two or three of them ready provided with the “barb,”
and for the others they always have about them sufficient to
serve in case of need, and can fasten them on in an instant.
These “barbs” are simply a small piece of wood, of about
two inches long, and having a knee in the middle, so that in
putting one side flat on the spear, the other will project from
it in an acute angle; and although it is fastened on with
sinews of the kangaroo only, it is so firmly fixed as never to
slip off, so that it is quite impossible to draw such a spear out
of the body of a person or an animal, and it can only be
broken off. On this account it is considered unfair and
highly blameable to employ this weapon in any fight or in
warfare. Besides this kind of spear, which is always thrown
with the so-called “ middla,”’ they make use of the ‘‘ winna,”’
about five feet long, thick and clumsy, but only for the pur-
pose of spearing fish.

The “middla” is a kind of lever, by means of which an
increased power is created for propelling the spear with
greater force than could be done with the arm by itself. It
is about two feet long, two inches broad; the inward side on
which the spear rests is scooped out a little, while the outward

170 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

part is rounded, both sides being usually notched, in
order to give a firmer hold. ‘To the upper tapering end is
attached, with sinews of the kangaroo and a little gum, a hook
or a tooth of the kangaroo, which, when throwing, is placed
in the opening at the flat or blunt end of the spear. It is
generally made out of a piece of the casuarina or she-oak. In
using the “ middla,”’ it is held with three fingers, while the
thumb and first finger remain disengaged, for holding the
spear, and giving it the proper direction.

Another weapon, called “wirra,” is made of the stem of
young trees, about one and a-haif feet long, and barely an inch
thick. The thin end, which serves for the handle, is gene-
rally notched, while towards the thicker endit is a little bent,
somewhat in the shape of a sword. The “ wirra” of the
Adelaide and Murray tribes have generally a stout knob at
the lower end, which adds considerably to their propelling
power. This weapon the natives use for killing kangaroo
rats and other small animals, and also at the commencement
of their fights or battles, until they can afterwards employ
their spears.

The “katta”? is a cudgel or stick, four or five feet long,
and one or two inches thick, the lower end of which, when
hardened by fire, is sharpened something in the shape of a
chisel. This tool is used for digging up roots; and as this is
one of the occupations of the women chiefly, they constantly
carry them along with them. The Murray tribes also em-
ploy the “‘katta” for loosening the bark off the eucalypti,
which operation they perform remarkably quick.

This bark serves for the building of their canoes, and for
their protection against rain. The Murray tribes generally
have in their camps a piece of this bark, drymg upon it
the skins of the smaller animals, the opossums, wallabies, and
others required for their rugs, as described above.

The “wadna” is a kind of weapon about three feet long,
with a knee in the middle. Itis never used as a weapon for
fighting, but only for killing large fish ; on this account they
are but seldom seen with the natives, and then only when
they happen to be engaged in fishing.

The most extraordinary tool in use among the Port Lincoln
tribes, and (according to Mr. Schurmann’s opinion, as it has
never been mentioned among any others) confined to them, is
the “ yuta,” being a piece of bark, about 4 to 5 feet long and
8 or 10 inches broad, in the shape of a small trough. It
is used for separating a large species of eatable ants. When

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 171

they open the ant-hills, they find among the refuse the large
white maggots and eggs, which alone are eaten; in order to
save themselves the trouble of picking them with the hand,
they employ the ‘“ yuta,” as a kind of fan or sieve, the larger
and eatable particles remaining back in it. As these maggots
are already alive, the natives wrap them in a bunch of dry
grass, which they chew and suck until they have extracted all
substance. The season of these ants is in September and
October, and at this season only of the year will you meet
with the ‘“‘yuta”’? in their hands.

In confirmation of the above, Mr. Blandowski mentions
that the Goulburn tribe also avail themselves of ants’ eggs,
and clean them in the following manner :—‘ They throw ants
and eggs, &c., into a kangaroo skin, which they shake
roughly, by which the eggs, on account of their greater
specific gravity, are precipitated to the bottom, and tke ants,
particles of wood, and other impurities on the surface, bemg
then removed, the eggs are eaten raw, and resemble sago,
and possess a very peculiar aroma.”

All their weapons and tools, together with various other
articles, they collect in their knapsacks, which they carry by
means of strings tied over their left shoulder and under the
left arm. It ccusists either of a kangaroo skin only, drawn
together with a cord, or of a coarse matting made of the
fibres of a certain kind of rush. The articles contained in
almost every knapsack are—a small flat shell for drinking,
a round flinty stone for bruising the bones of the game,
pieces of one or more kinds of colours, a small wooden shovel,
which they use for roasting roots, a few pieces of quartz, and
the entire skin of some small animal, which answers the pur-
pose of a bag, into which they put the smaller objects they
require, such as sinews of kangaroo and pointed bones of
various sizes, which answer the purpose of thread and needle,
also some bones with sharp edges, for scraping the roots,
some spearhooks, &c.

To prevent anything from dropping through the large
meshes of the network, they line it with dry grass. In addi-
tion to the articles mentioned, they put into their knapsacks,
called ‘‘nurti,” a stock of roots and game, aad then on the top
they place their weapons, which are kept fast by being twisted
between the strings, so that they cannot slip off. The bags of
the women, called “nudla,” differ from those of the men in
being of a larger size, and, if filled and heavy, are carried on
the back by means of crosshelts.

172 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

I have to mention another instrument, quite different from
any of those above, viz.:—the “ witarna,” a piece of wood 18
inches long, 4 inches broad, } inch thick, which, tied to a long
string, they swing round above their heads, and thus produce
alow rumbling sound at intervals, ceasing and returning with
increased power. ‘To the women and children the “witarna”’
is carefully hidden, as its sound indicates that the men are
engaged in some of their secret ceremonies, and that they are
to keep aloof from them.

It has been asserted that the natives eat anything without any
distinction whatsoever; this statement, probably, is owing to
the fact that they certainly eat many things which to Europeans
are disgusting, as, for instance, maggots of various kinds, rotten
eges, the entrails of animals; but, on the other hand, the
white people eat many things which to the natives are equally
disgusting, such as certain kinds of fish, oysters, shellfish,
muscles of all kinds, the common mushroom, the other de-
scription of which latter however they are very fond of them-
selves.

The natives divide all their articles of food into two classes
—the “paru” and “mai,” the former including all animal,
and the latter all vegetable articles of food; of these are the
various descriptions of roots—such as the ngamba, ngarruru,
and others, all of about the size of a small carrot, and
of its shape, of a more or less acrid taste, and which are first
roasted in hot ashes, and then peeled for eating. Ofthe grass-
tree, xanthorraea, they eat the lower part of the stem not yet
grown above the surface of the ground; it is by no means
tasteless, but certainly cannot contain much nourishment ;
besides these they also eat various kinds of fungi.

Although to Europeans the country offers scarcely any kind
of eatable fruit, it yields a pretty good variety of such as
affords valuable food to the blacks. The most important and
abundant fruit is that of a mesembrianthemum, to which the
Europeans have given the somewhat vulgar name of pigfaces,
but the natives the more euphonical one of karkalla. Pressing
the fruit between their fingers, they drop the luscious juice into
the mouth. During the karkalla season, which lasts from
January till the end of the summer, the natives lead a compara-
tively easy life; they are free from any anxiety of hunger, as the
_ plant grows in all parts of the country, and most abundantly on
the sandy hills near the sea. The men generally gather only
as much as they want for the moment, but the women collect
large quantities for eating after supper. The Port Lincoln

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 173

blacks eat only the fruit of this plant, but those living be-
tween the Grampians and the Victoria Ranges, as a substitute
for salt with their meat, eat also the leaves of this saline
plant. All other edible fruit grow in pods, or in the shape of
berries on small bushes. Some of these they allow to ripen,
as, for instance, the fruit of the santalum and that of a species
of epacris, which, growing on the sea-shore, bears small red
sweet berries called “ wadnirri.”” Another plant, “karambi,”
also growing on the sea-shore, is the Nitraria billardierii.*
Other fruits they collect before they are ripe, and roast
them in hot ashes, such as the berries of the pulbullu,
and the pods of the menka, and the nundo. The last-men-
tioned fruits, highly valued by the natives, are of the acacias,
growing abundantly on the sandy downs of Sheaford and Cof-
fin’s Bay, and by attracting thither a numerous company of
blacks, they frequently give occasion for dissension and quar-
rels. Asa proof of the value or consideration attached to this
fruit, it may be mentioned that, in order to annoy their
adversaries, the Kukata tribe of the north-west, famous for
their atrocity and witchcraft, often threaten to burn or other-
wise destroy the nundo bushes.

As only few gum-trees grow in Port Lincoln, they have but
little of the edible gums upon which the Adelaide tribes live
almost exclusively during the summer months; what they get
they collect from the acacia trees, which, however, grow but
sparingly, yielding very little gum.

Any kind of game, from the kangaroo down to the smallest
species of the genus of the marsupials, and every description
of birds, without distinction, are welcome as food to the Port
Lincoln blacks, nor are snakes and lizards by any means de-
spised by them—the former of which they eat only if killed by

* The Nitraria billardierit belongs to the order of Malpighiacce, grows
in large quantities on high sandhills along the western sea-coast of Port
Lincoln, has a fruit in form and size resembling an olive, is of a dark red
color, has a very pleasant taste, and is exceedingly cooling. In December
and January the bushes are so full of fruit, that the natives lie down on
their backs under them, strip off the fruit with both hands, and do not
rise until the whole bush has been cleared of its load. At the time above
mentioned I travelled with five natives, who carried my collection of plants
and blankets on a very hot day through this arid country ; all at once they
threw off their loads, ran as quickly as they were able to one of the high
sandhills, and disappeared amongst the bushes. Not knowing the meaning
of all this, I followed them, and found the whole five, as above described,
lying on their backs under the bushes. I could not do better than do so
likewise, and when we had refreshed ourselves we continued our journey.

174 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

themselves. They are also very fond of lizard eggs, which,
dug fresh out of the ground, taste exactly like soft-boiled hen’s
eggs.

“Their usual method of hunting is unobservedly to approach
‘the animal as near as they can, and to spear it. On these oc-
casions they resort to various manceuvres, as for instance—
one of the blacks places himself at some distance in an open
space of ground or behind some bushes, and makes a slight
noise by breaking off some branches, or in any other way,
while another black stealthily approaches to within a spear’s
throw from the opposite side, where, of course, the animal
does not suspect the least danger. This is the usual manner for
killing kangaroos, emus, wild dogs, &c. If, however, there be
assembled a number of natives, and aware of several kangaroos
being in the neighbourhood, then they will surround the dis-
trict, gradually narrowing the circle; the best spearsmen being
placed at certain favourable spots, and the others driving the
game regularly towards them. If sucha chase happens to take
place near the sea, the kangaroos will try to escape into it,
but to little purpose only, as their pursuers follow them
there even, and while swimming surround them. Smaller ani-
mals, such as wallabies, kangaroo rats, &c., which live im the
lower scrub, they kill by throwing at them (when started)
clubs called “wirra.’”? At times, having set on fire entire
districts of country, they place themselves before the fire in
order to kill the scared animals which try to escape in that
direction. The blacks are very expert in the use of this very
simple weapon, and practise it from the earliest age, by roll-
ing on the ground, instead of the animal, a dry sponge, throw-
ing the wirra after it. I have frequently seen little boys seven
and eight years old, brmging down, in this manner, parrots off
the casuarina trees, and the little girls even know well how to
handle this tool. ;

When hunting in the lower scrub, they attach a bunch of
feathers to the blunt end of the spear, and on discovering an
animal, fix it in the ground as a signal for the others to come
near, aud surround it to secure the prey. In addition to
this they have a variety of signs, unaccompanied by sound, for
indicating the different animals they discover; for instance,
they stretch out the first finger, moving it as in imitation of
the leaping of a kangaroo when not suspecting an enemy, to
indicate that such an animal is in sight; again, three fingers
stretched out, the second finger a little lower than the others,
is for an emu; the thumb alone is raised for an opposum ; the

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 175

whole hand stretched out horizontally for fish, and similar
signs for every kind of game.

The opposum and wild cat they hunt when the sky is
slightly clouded, saying that with a clear sky the animals can
see them, and will escape before they can approach them.
When they discover kangaroo rats in the holes of rocks,
or under heavy stones, and find that they cannot drive them
out with their hands or a stick, they will light a fire at the
hole in order to smoke them out.

Having no fish-hooks, they are, with respect to fishing, be-
hind the other tribes of Australia. The larger fish they spear,
_but the small ones they catch in the following manner :—As
* they move in swarms, a body of natives, ar ed with branches
of trees, go into the water, regularly surround and draw them
together, and then with these branches push them on the shore.
When engaged in this occupation they allow no stranger to
be near, on account of the idea they have that the fishes would
smell them and disappear.

Some fishes are in the night attracted to light, and then
easily killed ; the blacks, provided with torches, made of long
strips of bark, go into the water, and catch them with the
hand, striking them or spearmg them.

There are great rejoicings with them if they have had good
luck in their hunting or fishing expeditions. Quite excited,
slapping their stomachs with both hands, every one exclaims—
“ Neaitye paru, ngaitye paru,” which means “‘my food, my
food,’ and most liberally bestow their praise upon those whom
they are indebted to for the great treat.

They roast all their meat on the fire. The large animals,
such as kangaroos and emus, are cut up before cooking, and
the former are skinned; but the smaller ones, excepting those
of which they want to preserve the skins, are put on the fire
with their skins on. , They first singe off the hair, and haying
taken out the entrails, which are generally given to the women
and children, they close up the opening with some small
wooden pegs, and, thus prepared, place it on the fire for roast-
ing. If connected with more cleanliness, this method of pre-
paring the food might be strongly recommended, for the meat
gains a most inviting flavour, and retains all its strength and
juice; but the filthiness of these natives is so excessive, that
they do not even take the pains to cleanse and wash the en-
trails, but, having squeezed out their contents only, they roast
and eat them.

The superstitious simplicity of these natives is strikingly

176 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

apparent in their manner of hunting and dividing the game.
There have been transmitted to them, by their early ancestors,
several short rhymes of two lines, which now are known to
the adults only, and these, on pursuing an animal, or when
on the point of spearing it, they constantly repeat with great
rapidity. The literal meaning of these cabalistic rhymes is
totally unknown to them, and they are quite unable to give
an explanation of them, but their object, and the power which
they faithfully believe them to possess, is either to strike with
blindness the animal which they are pursuing, or to create mit
sucha feeling of security and carelessness, that it cannot,perceive
its enemies, or so to weaken it that it cannot effect its escape.

The general principle, with regard to the division of the
game, is, that the men eat the males, the women the females,
and the children the small animals; but since there is no rule |
without its exception, so also in this case the men claim
the right also to eat the females and small animals, while the
women and children must abide by the established rules; the
common kangaroo rat, however, they are all, without any
distinction, allowed to eat.

As a fixed prohibition, the wallaby, in the Parnkalla lan-
guage called “‘ yarridni,’’ and the two species of bandicoot,
“kurkulli” and “yartini,” dare not,on any account, be eaten by
young lads or girls, as, according to their opinion they would,
with the latter, cause premature puberty, and with regard to
the former give to their beards a brownish appearance, in-
stead of its becoming a jet-black colour, as it ought to do.
Mr. Schurmann has had frequent opportunities to satisfy him-
self of the strict observance of this law. Lizards are considered
the preper food for young girls whose puberty they wish to
hasten on, and snakes for women to make them bear children.

A huntsman’s hfe, under any circumstances, is a migratory
one, butit becomes the more soin this country where Nature’s
products are obtainable only according to the season, and in
districts far off one from the other.

On this account the Port Lincoln blacks are obliged at
times to resort to the seacoast for catching fish, at others to
rove over hill and dale im pursuit of game and roots, and dur-
ing the unproductive months they are forced, for the smaller
kinds of game, toroam through the whole country, some parts
of which are covered with an almost impenetrable small serub,
and other parts complete deserts, all the time having to
contend against a dreadful heat, rendered almost imsup-
portable by the reflection of the rays of the sun, and of the

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 177

surrounding burning scrub ; and being, in addition to all this,
deprived of a sufficiency of water. In order then to allay
their thirst, they resort to the strange trick of covering their
stomachs with earth, in order to cool them, and which, they
say, has the desired effect.

The average distance which the blacks travel in a day is 15
to 20 miles; but on one occasion myself, with three natives,
and a woman carrying a child, walked 35 miles on an
exceedingly hot day.

On their journey the men generally ramble about, but the
women and children, under charge of one or two men, proceed
in a direct course to their place of rendezvous.

In the morning they are never in a hurry to make a start,
and at times it requires a great deal of coaxing and persuasion,
on the part of some of the older men, to get them into a re-
gular move.

On arrival at their camp or place of rest, generally a little
before sunset, the first thing they do is to kindle a fire for
roasting the small game which the men have secured during
the day. The larger game they roast on the spot where it has
been killed, which renders it anything but desirable to fall in
with emus or kangaroos when travelling in company of blacks,
if anxious to reach any fixed place at a certain time. The
remnants of a large roast they hang upon sticks, and thus
carry it to the camp.

After eating their meat, the women hand round the roots
and fruits which they have gathered durimg the day; and after
having done with these also, they chat and sing; and if as-
sembled in large numbers, they dance until tired, then lic
down for sleep. If there should happen to be a large supply
of meat beyond that required for supper, they stay up the
whole night to finish it; but if, after all, anything should re-
main over, they put it into a bag, which they make serve
them as a pillow, and, on opening their eyes in the morning,
their first move is towards the bag for its contents.

As patiently as they bear up against the cravings of hunger
and thirst at times of want, as immoderate also are they when
in abundance, when they overload their stomachs almost to
bursting, and will not stir from the camp until their stock is
exhausted, and hunger almost forces them to move.

The only cases in which they evince any forethought of the
future is in their great care for birds’ nests, and for water, to
secure and protect which against animals they cautiously cover
all their springs with stones or branches of trees.

N

178 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

Their habitations are of a very simple and primitive con-
struction. In the summer, and in dry fine weather, they
heap up some branches of trees, in the form of a horseshoe,
for protection against the winds ; in the winter, and in wet
weather, however, they make a kind of hut or bower with
the branches of the casuarina, in the shape of a deep niche,
and erect them as perpendicularly as they can, thereby to
facilitate the dripping off of the rain. In those parts of the
country where they have gum trees (eucalypti) they peel off
the bark, and fix it so well together as to make the roof quite
waterproof. In front of these huts they always byrn a fire
during the night for warming their feet, and in the cold
weather every one lies between a small heap of burning coals
in front and at the back, for keeping warm the upper part of
their body. As the slightest motion must bring them into
contact with these burning coals, it naturally occurs that bain
at times seriously burn themselves.

The time they remain in one spot altogether depends on nthe
locality, and the supply of food obtaimable.

In several parts of Port Lincoln there are isolated wells or
holes in large rocks, containing a supply of water, while not
anywhere else, within 30 miles, a drop of it is to be found ;
the natives, as long as they remain in that neighbourhood, are,
in consequence, obliged to return every night to the same camp.
In places favourably situated for fishing they will extend their
stay in the same camp for twelve or fourteen days, but never
longer.

The habit of constantly changing their places of rest is so
great that they cannot overcome it, even if staying where all
their wants can be abundantly supplied. A certain longing
to revisit this or that spot, for which they have taken a par-
ticular fancy, seizes them, and neither promises nor persua-
sion can induce them to resist it for any time; only in time
and by degrees is this feeling likely to give way. As they
travel greater distances during the summer months than
during winter, they then also more frequently change their
places of rest.

Each family has its distinct place, where they live together;
and all unmarried men have to sleep by themselves.

All the aborigines in the Port Lincoln district are divided
into two separate classes, viz., the ‘‘ Matteri”? and the
** Karraru.”

This division seems to have been introduced since time
immemorial, and with a view to regulate their marriages, as

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 179

no one is allowed to intermarry in their own castes, but only
into the other one—that is, if the man is a matteri, he can
choose as his wife a karraru only, and vice versa. This dis-
tinction is kept up by the arrangement that the children
belong to the caste of the mother. There are no instances
of two karrarus or two matteris having been married toge-
ther, and yet connexions of a less virtuous character which
take place between members of the same caste do not appear
to be considered incestuous. In addition to this general
rule, there are certain degress of relationship within which
intermarrying is prohibited; yet from the indefinite degree
of their relationship by blood, arising from the plurality of
wives, and thei being cast off at pleasure, &c., it be-
comes very difficult to trace them exactly. Besides this,
friendship among the natives leads to the adoption of forms
and names strictly in use among relatives only; thus it be-
comes totally impossible to make out what are real relations
or apparently so.

Marriages among the Port Lincoln blacks are made up in
the most simple manner imaginable.

The girls, when young, are betrothed by their parents to a
friend of theirs, young or old, married or unmarried, as the
case may be, and when grown up for marriage are simply
ordered to follow their husband, without any further ceremo-
nies, and without the least regard for their own individual
inclinations.. To their good luck, however, it does not very
seldom occur that an old, jealous matron strongly opposes
herself against such a division of her husband’s affections be-
tween herself and her young rival, and forces him to renounce
all claims upon her in favor of some young fellow, whois but
too willing to take charge of her. Sometimes, also, a young
man, urged on by his passions, or under the idea of a well-
founded claim, will, by force, abduct the wife of another, and,
if he cannot otherwise gain his object, even kill him without
the least compunction.

The marriages of the Goulburn tribe seem nearly to cor-
respond with those in Port Lincoln, as may be seen from an
extract from Mr. Blandowski’s ‘‘ Personal Observations in
Victoria” :—

“The young man who wishes to marry, has first to look
out for a wife amongst the girls or lubras of some neighbour-
ing tribe, and having fixed his choice, his next care is to ob-
tain her consent. This being managed, the happy couple
straightway elope, and remain together in the bush for two

N 2

180 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

nights and one day, in order to elude the pretended search
of the tribe to whom the female belonged. This concludes the
ceremony, and the young man then returns with his wife to
his own tribe. He is, however, laid under this peculiar injunc-
tion—that he must not see his mother-in-law any more; and
the following circumstance, connected with this fact, has
been related to me by Mr. Grant, an eye-witness. A mother-
in-law having been descried approaching, a number of lubras
formed a circle around the young man, and he himself
covered his face with his hands. This, while it screened the
old lady from his sight, served as a warning to her not to
approach, as she sae never be oe by. a third party of
the presence of her son-in-law.”’

The most abominable views and the still more shameless
conduct of the natives, with respect to marriages, if the term

can be applied to their manner of living together, undoubt-
edly presents the worst feature of their character.

Although the men are apt to become passionately feelers
if they detect their wives tr ausgressing without their consent,
yet of their own accord they ‘offer them and send them to
other men, or make an exchange for a night with some one
of their friends. Of relatives, brothers in particular, it may
be said that they possess their wives jointly.

While the former custom of lending their wives out for a
night appears to be considered by the blacks themselves as
indecorous, yet the other one is an acknowledged custom,
which they do not see the least occasion to be ashamed of.

These extraordinary connections have given rise to strange
appellations among them. The woman honors the brother
of the man to whom she is married with the title also of
husband, while the men call their own wives yungaras, and
those of their brothers, kartetis.

Although they are married so very young, the women, ac-
cording to Mr. Schurmann’s observations, generally have no
children before the age at which they get them in Europe.

The number of children in a family varies considerably;
but, upon the whole, it is limited—seldom exceeding four.

Tf, as it but seldom occurs, children are born in a family
quick one after another, the youngest is generally destroyed
in some out of the way place, by some woman, accompanied
for this purpose by the mother herself. From the excess of
male adults alive, it may fairly be presumed that a by far
greater number of girls than of boys are done away with in this
manner. As an apology for this barbarous custom, the wo-

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 181

men plead that they cannot suckle and carry two children
together. The men clear themselves of all guilt, saying—
that they are never present when these deeds are committed,
and that therefore all blame rests with the women.

Both sexes are very fond of their children, but yet the
mothers are most careless with them, and let them burn
themselves dreadfully at times, at their fires, as a conse-
quence of which you seldom meet with a native who has not
a trace, more or less disfiguring, of having been so burnt.

In the naming of the children a fixed and very simple rule
is followed, accordmg to the number of children born.
For instance, the first-born is called Piri, if a boy ; and Kar-
tanye, if agirl. The second one is called Warni, or Warrunya.
The third one is called Kunni or Kunta; and so on, accord-
ing to its sex. They have seven or eight such names for each
sex. In addition to these names used in familiar inter-
course, and answering our Christian names, the child also
takes the name of the place of its birth. Both these names
they preserve during life, and the males, on attaining the age
of manhood, get a third one, under strict observance of many
mysterious formalisms which will be described hereafter.

Although living in a salubrious climate and on healthy
food, the natives are subject to many diseases. Among those
which they suffer most from are sores, diarrhoea, colds, and
headache. For removing these, or partially curing them for
the time, they apply outward remedies, some of which
appear to be effective. The chief ones are—rubbing, press-
ing, and treading even upon the afflicted parts of the body,
in particular the belly and the back; tightening of the belt,
and also of the band which they usually wear round the head;
bandaging the diseased part; sprinkling or washing it with
cold water in case of fever or inflammation. Sores or wounds
are generally left to take their course, or the utmost done is
to tie something tight round it, or, if inflammation has en-
sued, to sprinkle cold water upon it. Bleeding of the lower
arm they apply in cases of headache. A most extraordi-
nary remedy against headache I saw applied in 1849, in the
case of a woman, who submitted to having her head so cut
up by another woman with pieces of broken glass, that the
blood actually dropped through her thick bushy hair.

The cure by bleeding is confined to the males only, and is
frequently applied during the hot season.

They do not allow the blood to run on the ground, but
upon the body of some other man, directing the arm im such

182 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

a manner that the stream forms a number of small cross-
lines, in consequence of which the body assumes the’ appear-
ance of being covered with a tight-fitting network of very
small meshes. The object of this custom partly is, as stated
above, to act as a cure for headache and inflammation, and
partly also to promote the growth of the young people, and
to preserve the strength and vigour of the aged ones.

Many proofs might be given of the very slight conception
they can form of the relative bearing of cause and effect.
For instance, an elderly fellow, who had been kept for two
years in jail in Adelaide, had the idea that his beard, having
turned grey, had been dyed by the soap with which he had
been obliged to wash himself there.

The women may be present at the operation of bleeding.
Whenever engaged in this or certain other operations, the
‘‘witarna,’” as above stated, is put in motion, to prevent
young unmarried people from unwittingly surprising them.

The natives have also their regular doctors, called min-
tapas, who pretend to be able to remove, by sucking, sickness
out of the body. They put their lips to the pit of the stomach
in case of general disease, and to the suffering part where
confined to any fixed spot, and, after having sucked for some
time, pull out of their mouths a small piece of wood or bone,
pretending that this is the body of the disease, which had
been communicated by some evil-disposed person, and had
now been extracted by them.

So superstitious are these ignorant children of nature, that
they have the fullest faith in these absurdities, and passion-
ately defend them against any one expressing the least doubt
respecting them, or hinting even that the mintapa might
have put the piece of wood or bone into his mouth previously.
They further appear to attribute to these mintapas super-
natural powers, and to consider them almost as beings of a
superior class, to whom they assign after death a place of
residence different to that whereto other people are removed,
and which they call Pandarri Kurto (heaven’s cavern). 'The
souls of these mintapas are supposed to be at full lhberty to
enter and leave this place, and are said often to appear in the
evening in human forms to these natives, bringing with
them new songs, and then disappear again.

It is well ascertained that they have among them poets as
well as doctors, as has beew proved in the case of Maltalla,
an old man, who shortly before his death made two songs,
which are now recited by his tribe.

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 183

The names of common blacks, when dead, are not men-
tioned for a considerable time, but in the case of Maltalla,
and probably all mintapas, they make an exception of this
rule.

The dignity of mintapa seem to be hereditary, for, as the
blacks used to say, Maltalla’s eldest son, although he had
not then given any proofs of his aptitude for the office, would
assume the functions of a mintapa.

Among the blacks in the immediate neighbourhood of
Port Lincoln there are few of these sorcerers, but among the
savage Kukata tribes they are said to be numerous.

The natives show strong feelings of commisseration in cases
of illmess, the women particularly so, who, under an abun-
dance of tears, prove their interest and attention by frequently
rubbing and pressing the affected parts ; but the sick them-
selves, in desperate cases even, submit to their sufferings with
a surprising stoicism and resignation.

A yery peculiar circumstance, not to be met with perhaps
in any other uncivilized community, is that these natives have
no chief or individual of acknowledged authority among them.
All the adult men are quite equal one to the other, a fact so
well understood among them, that no one would ever presume
to adopt a tone of command to another one, but, by asking
and persuasion only, tries to obtain what he wants. The
young people, however, show great respect towards the old
ones, a tribute-to advanced age or to greater experience per-
haps; but this, no doubt, is increased and preserved by a
superstitious and dreadful horror of certain secret rites known
to the grown-up men only, into the knowledge of which the
young lads are initiated by degrees.

The three degrees which they have to pass through, con-
stitute three distinct epochs in their lives ; during the interval
between the rise from one degree to the other, the name of
that particular degree last attained serves them for their
aisual name.

At the age of 14 or 15 years they enter the first degree,
which procures them the distinguished name of Warrara.

Mr. Schurmann has never witnessed the performance of
these ceremonies, as the natives, apprehensive lest these secrets
might be communicated to their wives and children, do not
admit any strangers at them, but he has been told a
description of it; while closing the eyes of the lads,
they pronounce certain mysterious formulas, calling
out ‘“ Herri, herri, herri,’” and making a rattling noise

184 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

with the “pullakall,’ an instrument resembling the
“ witarna,”’ but smaller in size. Two or three months after
this ceremony, the lad has to paint his face black, dares not
speak aloud, but must express in whispers all his wishes and
wants. Any infringement of these laws subjects them to
severe reprimands from their seniors, and even more talking
than is absolutely necessary is considered highly reproachable.

A few years after this first ceremony the young men
advance to the second degree, when they are called Pardnapas,
and have to undergo the operation of circumcision. Mr.
Edward John Eyre, the well-known explorer, mentions this
strange custom in vol. I. p. 212 as follows :—‘ This extraor-
dinary and inexplicable custom must have a great tendency
to prevent the rapid increase of the population; and its
adoption may perhaps be a wise ordination of Providence for
that purpose, in a country of so desert and arid a character
as that which these people occupy.” The hair, which while
the lad was a Warrara in the first degree had been allowed
to grow, is then plaited in a coil, and in the shape of a plate
fastened on the crown of the head in a net made of the spun
hair of the opossum ; his penis is also covered with a kind of
fringe or tassel made of the same material. These sacred
marks of distinction are worn for several months; and after
removal of the net the hair is not cropped, but made to
hang down in curls. Durimg this period, without any
peculiar ceremony, the operation of the painful mutilating
circumcision is performed, the particular object of which Mr.
Schurmann has never been able to ascertain ; the blacks
themselves cannot assign any other reason for it, but that
their forefathers had observed the custom, and that they
must do the same. To the women and children they pretend
that ‘‘ Midhalla,” an imaginary being, and said to be mhabit-
ing some island, is the cause of this cruel mutilation.

The last and most important ceremony takes place at the
age of 18 or 20 years, after which the young men are called
“ Wilyalkinyes.’” Mr. Schurmann having twice had the
opportunity of witnessing its performance, is thereby enabled
to give a detailed description of it.

As an introductory step for the grand festivity, the so-
called ‘‘ Indanyanas,”’ a kind of sponsors, are chosen, their
duty being to carry out the old established custom relating
thereto. Some one clasps his arms, from behind, around the
sponsor whom they have fixed upon, and draws him backwards
on his lap, after which others collect around him, urging him to

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 185

accept the office of Indanyana, an honor which he pretends
to accept of most reluctantly. (All festivities of the blacks
take place during the summer season, when a great number
of them are always collected together; and since no one
among them possesses any authority of command, it requires
no little mutual persuasion and exhortation to move on a
large idle body of them; the natural consequence is, the
greater part of the day passes on in going through ceremo-
nies for which an hour would be amply sufficient.)

They commence by closing the eyes of the “‘ Wilyalkinyes,”’
and by fetching out of their camps, apparently much against
their will, the women, who raise up a general lamentation,
far, however, from sincere; in the meantime, the lads have
been removed by their sponsors, and are kept at a short dis-
tance from the place of encampment. ‘These, then, having
placed themselves in a circle, holding for about an hour the
eyes of the lads closed with both hands, utter from time
to time a long, protracted, melancholy, monotonous tone,
sounding somewhat like ‘“‘Je—e—ch.” Then leading the
lads a further distance off, they lay them flat on the
ground, and cover them up with rugs; after an interval
of another hour, two men fetch several green boughs of
trees, and the lads having been raised up again, the whole
body of those present jom together and form a large semi-
circle round them. The two bearers of the green boughs
now step forward, place themselves in the centre of the open-
ing of the circle, vehemently stamp their right feet, and
under various gestures of anger and wrath throw the boughs
over the heads of the young men, while at the same
time the other company make a clatter by striking their various
war instruments together, and utter a volley of short, strong,
loud sounds, the last of which they prolong each time that any
of the boughs fall to the ground—similar, we might say, to
“« Je-je-je-jeh,” while the young initiated are then laid on the
carefully-spread boughs, and again covered with rugs. The
others quite leisurely set to work preparing the small pieces
of quartz for the tattooing operation, and engage in finding
out some new names to bestow on them for life hereafter.
The latter becomes a rather difficult task, since the name has
not only to correspond with their taste and notions of euphony,
but also must be quite new, and not have been borne by any
other individual alive or dead even. These names generally
are derived from the roots of verbs, to which they attach as
end-syllables—“ alta,” “ilti,” or “ulta”—according tothe last

186 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natwwes,

syllable of the word itself. Whether these changes affect
the meaning of the word we cannot say, as they are made
use of in connection with proper names only. The
natives by no means despise any suggestion from the whites
in reference to any new name, but yet in the choice of any
one proposed they are very particular that it should be quite
new and well-suited.

Everything being properly prepared, several of the men
open a vein in their lower arm, and make the lads, after
having lifted them again, swallow the first drops of this
blood; they then make them kneel down and support them-
selves on their hands, and their backs, thus gettmg into an
horizontal position, are covered over with a thick coating of
the blood, and when this has sufficiently congealed, one of
the men with his thumb marks out the spots where the in-
cisions are to be made. One is made in the centre of the
neck, and a row of them at distances of one-third of an inch,
and running-from each shoulder down to the hips. These
incisions—about an inch long, and in course of time forming
a kind of swelling—are called ‘‘Manka,”’ and are always con-
sidered with great respect, being never alluded to in the pre-
sence of the women or children. The other incisions,
however, which at an early age are made on the breast and
the arms, are merely for ornament, and have no sacred mean-
ing. The more or less decided character of these swellings
affords a certain indication of the probable age of a native.
During the vigorous age of manhood they are strong and well
defined, but get gradually reduced with the advance of age,
until, when very old, they can be traced like scars only.

Although each incision made with the blunt rough quartz
has to be repeated several times, in order to make them suf-
ficiently deep, and afterwards the flesh has to be drawn
asunder carefully, the sufferers, notwithstanding the dreadfal
pain of such an operation, do not utter a groan, or move a
muscle even, in consequence. Mr. Schurmann, however,
has seen some of their friends so moved by compassion for
their sufferings as to shed tears, and make some attempts—
although unsuccessfully, of course—at putting a stop to this
cruel process. During the operation as many men as can
approach press round the lads, rapidly repeating in a sub-
dued tone the following formula:—

. Kannaka kanya, marra marra,
Karndo kanya, marra marra,
Pilberri kanya, marra marra.

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 187

The object of this formula, handed down to them from their
forefathers, and, as it appears, void of any meaning or sense
soever, is to deaden the pain, and to prevent any dangerous
effects of this dreadful laceration. The operation being con-
cluded, the young men are raised up and their eyes opened,
when the first object they perceive are two men, who, stamp-
ing their feet and biting their beards, run towards them
hurling the “ witarna” with great vehemence, and apparently
intending to throw it at their heads, but who, when sufficiently
near, satisfy themselves with putting the cord of tlie imstru-
ment round the necks of one after the other.

In commemoration of thew having passed through this
trial, the Wilyalkinyes are honored with various marks of
distinction, as, for instance, they are presented with a belt
spun of human hair; they wear a tight bandage round each
of their upper arms, also a cord of opossum hair round their
neck, the ends dropping down on their back, to be fastened
to the belt ; further, a bunch of green leaves fastened above
their part virilis, and at last they blacken their faces, arms,
and. breasts.

As a wind up, all present press once more around them in
order to give their last good advice for their future conduct,
the chief drift of which, as far as Mr. Schurmann has
been able to make out, consists in the followimg—to avoid
quarrels and disputes, not to indulge in talking loud, and to
keep off from the women. ‘The two last of these injunctions
are strictly followed, and for this purpose they live day and
night separated from the other blacks, and talk in a subdued
tone only until after the expiration of four or five months, when
they are relieved from this constraint. This absolution is
effected by tearing off from the necks of the Wilyalkinyes
the opossum cord, the symbol of taciturnity, and sprinkling
the upper body with blood in the manner which has been
deseribed above. They are henceforth considered as initiated
into all the secrets, and fit to be admitted to the enjoyment
of all the privileges of grown-up men.

William von Blandowski, late curator of the Melbourne
Museum of Natural History, mentions in his “ Personal
Observations of Victoria,” p. 23, a custom of the Goulburn
tribe which is interesting enough to give in full. “ Upona
youth arriving at manhood, he is conducted by three of the
leaders of his tribe into the recesses of the woods, where he
remains two days and one night. Being furnished with a
piece of wood, he knocks out two of the teeth of his upper

188 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

front jaw, and on returning to the camp carefully consigns
them to his mother; the youth then again retires into the
forest, and remains absent two nights and one day, durmg
which his mother, having selected a young gum tree, mserts
the teeth in the bark in the front of two of the topmost
branches. This tree is made known only to certain persons
of the tribe, and is strictly kept from the knowledge of the
youth himself. In case the person to whom the tree is thus
dedicated dies, the foot of it is stripped of its bark, and it is
killed by the application of fire, thus becoming a monument
of the deceased. Hence, we need no longer be surprised at
so frequently finding groups of dead trees in healthy and ver-
dant forests, and surrounded by luxuriant vegetation.”

A similar custom Dr. Livingstone found in the Babimpe
tribe in Africa, they knocking out both upper and lower front-_
ing teeth as a distinction. °

As stated above, the women and children are not allowed
to attend any of these ceremonies. Their camps even on
these occasions are then so placed that their view is fully
obstructed by bush or hills. If, however, any woman’s orchild’s
business—to fetch water or wood, for instance—should lead
them within sight of the place of these ceremonies, they are
required to cover their heads with their rug, and to move on
in a stooping position. Any improper curiosity, according to
ancient custom, is liable to be punished with death.

As a proof of the significance they attach to these strange
rites and customs, it may be instanced that it is considered
insulting if one of a higher degree taunts his adversary with
the lower degree he still occupies; thus—‘‘ Warrara purro,”’
meaning a warrara only (still in the first degree), and
“ Pardnapa purro” (a pardnapa only), or still m the second
degree, are used as offensive terms.

The views of the natives in reference to supernatural beings
or influences are very peculiar and remarkable. They have
as clear a conception of the unsubstantiality and immortality
of the soul as might be expected of them. In order to ex-
press the former quality, they represent the soul as being so
small that it might pass through a chink; and in reference to
the latter, they state that after the death of the body the soul
retires to au island as so small an atom as to be able to dis-
pense with further nourishment of any kind. Some represent
that island as being in the east, others in the west ; there-
fore, either not agreeing as to the exact locality, or believing
in the existence of several such islands whereto the departed

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 189

souls resort. On its journey to this island the soul is accom-
panied by a redbill, a kind of sea-bird, notorious for its
piercing shrill voice, audible during the night. It appears
that since they have found out the existence of the race of
white people, they have adopted the notion that their souls will
hereafter appear im the bodies of such white people. Whatever
be the cause, at present this is their belief, and they look upon
the whites as being only the embodied souls of their fore-
fathers. It may be imstanced as a proof of how firmly they
do believe, or rather have believed this, that in the idea they
had recognised in some of the settlers natives long ago de-
parted from life, they actually gave them the names which
these had gone by when alive. This notion is not confined
to the Port Lincoln blacks, but prevails also with those of
Adelaide and Victoria. To Mr. Blandowski, one of our
Australian travellers, it has occurred that an old lubra (black
woman), supposing him to be her former husband resuscitated,
has most tenderly embraced and kissed him.

The last words of a young Port Lincoln native, hanged in
Adelaide a few years ago, were to the effect that im course of
time he would become a white man, and yet this man had by
Europeans been taught more correct views.

These apparently conflicting two ideas—one, that an island
is the receptacle of the soul; the other, that they re-appear
in bodies of white people—may, perhaps, be reconciled by
the assumption of the natives that the island is the place of
residence for a certain period only. This is the more probable,
as they decidedly believe in a change of the souls, and assign
to them this island as an intermediate place of residence.

We can scarcely assume that the natives have originally
had any conception of future reward or punishment for good
or evil acts committed in this life, but yet they seem to think
that the fate of man depends on his own conduct, as may be
illustrated by the following anecdote :—

It had been reported that in the neighborhood of Streaky
Bay a blackfellow had been shot by the crew of a whaler,
because he had speared one of their dogs which had furiously
attacked him. Some time afterwards the crew of a
stranded whaler landed in the neighborhood, and on express-
ing a supposition that they might be the same men who had
killed the blackfellow, their misfortune was ascribed as the
consequence of their former cruel deed.

Among the superstitious notions of the Port Lincoln blacks,
their belief in the existence of a demon monster is most

190 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

remarkable. It is called “Marralye,” and is represented as a
man of the Kukata tribe, assuming, in order to fly through
the air, the form of a bird. It is dreaded at night time par-
ticularly, during which it attacks its victims while asleep,
implanting in them the germ of death, or inflicting on them
some other grievous harm. It, however, takes good care not
to leave behind any visible traces of its misdeeds, so that his
nightly visits can only be discovered by their pernicious
effects, such as pain, disease, &c. To him the death of chil-
dren and loss of eyes are attributed, if no other obvious
cause for them can be made out.

It is to be mentioned that the Marralye does not exist
substantially, but that it is only a mask assumed by wicked
men to enable them to carry out their depraved designs.
The Purkabidnies are another species of fabulous beings,
whose number is without limit. They are depicted as men
of a gigantic size, who, destitute of all clothmg, roam through
the country, armed solely with clubs. Although thirsting
for blood, and giving themselves up to murder, still they are
by no means so dangerous as the Marralye, as by science of
arms and courage they are to be resisted, and even overcome.
The aborigines never think of leaving their camp durig the
night time without taking a spear in their hand to protect
themselves against these assassins, who might be lurking in
the neighbourhood. Some of the natives go so far as to boast
that they have killed Purkabidnies, but it is to be presumed
that in their superstitious fright they have mistaken black
stumps of trees, or even other aborigines, for these terrible
monsters. Mr. Schurmann tells us that two natives whom he
had with him once showed him, in the middle of a thickly
wooded region, at a distance of not more than a hundred
paces, a dark object, which certainly bore resemblance to a
black man in a stooping position. They were convinced that
it was a Purkabidnie, and not only did they refuse to ‘accom-
pany Mr. Schurmann, but they even endeavoured to dissuade
him from attempting to examine the object in question.
Upon Mr. Schurmann approaching the object, he found it to
be a charred stump of a tree, and when he laid his hand
upon it, the natives burst into a loud laugh, and for this once
acknowledged that they were in error, but, nevertheless, they
remained steadfastly convinced that there were such spectral
bemgs, and that they had without doubt seen them upon other
occasions. ‘That isolated natives, who have wandered too far
into the territory of a strange tribe, are taken for Punkabid-

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 19]

nies, is not improbable, and the following circumstance gives
a tint of truth to this belief. Two young blacks of the Mur-
rumbidgee tribe, who left Mr. Eyre in the middle of his
journey from Adelaide to King George’s Sound, after mur-
dering his overseer, were, in their turn, while proceeding
homewards, killed by a western tribe, in the belief that they
were the redoubted Punkabidnies. The worst kind of super-
stition, and which in proportion causes as much mischief
among the native tribes as the belief in witchcraft formerly
did in Europe, is the notion that any one, out of hatred or
other motives, can kill any person inimical to him during his
sleep, and that this is done by boring the enemy with the
fingers in the side in a peculiar way. The consequences of
this proceeding are said to be gradual loss of health, and
finally death. The guilty wretch is generally discovered by
the evidence of the dying person. The aborigines have habi-
tuated themselves to the belief that in all cases of death
which cannot be accounted for, as proceeding from old age,
wounds, and other palpable causes, knayish and malicious
means have been resorted to. They are not content even
when the cause of death is sufficiently clear, but seek to find
a hidden cause, as the following event relative to the point
will show. A woman, while clearing out a well, was bitten
in the thumb by a black snake. It began to swell imme-
diately, and in the short space of twenty-four hours the
woman was a corpse. Still it was asserted that it was not
an accident, but that the deceased had pointed out a certain
aborigine as her murderer. Upon this evidence, which was
heightened by the circumstance that no blood flowed from
the wound, the woman’s husband and his friends challenged
the accused and his friends to combat. Peace, however, in
the meantime was made, and upon the offensive side it was
acknowledged that the woman was in error with regard to
the guilty person. But still not satisfied that the snake bite
should have been the cause of the death, another individual
was suddenly discovered, and accused of being the author of
the mishap. Thereupon war was declared upon him and his
party, but at last the affair was borne with and forgotten.
From this and other similar cases, it seems to stand forth
clearly as much revenge as superstition is at the bottom of
these infamous accusations. Considering that the aborigines
are unacquainted with Him in whose hands are life and death,
that they are little given to reflection, ready to sacrifice their
friends in obedience to a blind fate, capable, however, of deep

192 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

grief, and being superstitious at the same time; considering
all these points, it is not so much to be wondered at that
they should seek for the cause without the region of human
influences. The aborigines have many other superstitious
ideas, and although not possessing such a dangerous tendency
as the one above quoted, still such take hold of the imagina-
tion with a pernicious and undue strength. It is asserted
that far distant tribes, viz., Kukatas, have the power to pro-
duce strong rain, intolerable heat, and barrenness, in conse-
quence of which famine arises, and causes the other tribes to
be snatched from this life en masse. It is worthy of remark
that from the north-west, where the Kukatas camp, come
in winter the most severe rain and in summer the terrible
hot winds which make the ground arid and dries up all
vegetation. A comet, or any other atmospheric meteor, is
looked upon as a sure sign of death. Upon the appearance
of the great comet in 1843 they were so overcome by fright
and consternation, that they sought refuge in caves. The
inhabitants of Port Lincoln have a mass of superstitions, in-
herited from their forefathers, in the highest degree impro-
bable and monstrous, as we shall perceive from a few cases
before us.

Pulyalanna was a great man, who died many years ago,
and who had benefited his successors by having given names
to the southern and western parts of the land, names they
still retain at the present time. It happened unfortunately
for him, however, that his two wives ran away from him, a
circumstance that in no wise improved his temper. After a
long and fruitless search he discovered their trail, and, fol-
lowing it up, he overtook them near Cape Catastrophe, and
murdered them both, together with their children. They
were then transformed into stone, and are to be seen at the
present time in the middle of the sea, in the shape of islands
and rocks. Their sighs can also be heard in a hollow rock
through which the waves sometimes beat. Pulyalanna him-
self was, later on, taken near Point Isaac into the air, or into
heaven, where he still remains in an angry mood. When
he is excited, he raves and storms in the clouds, and produces —
thunder. He has been depicted as armed with clubs, with
which he especially hits the pardnapas, and often with so
true an aim, that he severs them in twain, and legs and
bodies fly in different directions. Some of the old aborigines
once prayed him to spare the pardnapas, and to destroy in-
stead the she-oaks, which to this day bear the marks of his

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 198

clubs and thunderbolts. They go so far as to say that light-
ning is the creation of Pulyalanna, caused by his stretching
his legs widely apart during one of his fits of rage.

The large red species of kangaroo, which is often seen
in the north, is not found in the Port Lincoln district, and
to judge from the following fable, one of these animals must
have wandered to this place. Kupirri, so this animal was
named, is said to have been of such enormous size, that he
swallowed each and all who endeavoured to kill him with
their spears. His aspect alone filled the natives with such
fright, that they lost all presence of mind, and flung the
wooden sling, middla, as well as the spear, which of course
caused the latter to lose its effect.

At last two expert hunters were found equal to combat this
monster. They were called Pilla and Idnya, who discovered
his track m the ranges running north of Port Lincoln. They
traced them for about thirty miles from Port Lincoln, came up
to him at Mount Nilawo; finding the beast asleep, they
immediately attacked it, but before they were aware of it,
their spears became blunted, which difficulty must have been
most inopportune for them. They fell into a violent dispute,
and Pilla wounded his antagonist in several parts of the body
with the blunted spear, receiving at the same time a cut across
the nose from his adversary’s middla. They soon, however,
made peace and killed the Kupirri, and great was their
astonishment, upon opening the animal, to find in his belly
several of their swallowed comrades; but being as expert
doctors as hunters, they brought the unfortunate natives to
life again, and all made preparations to broil and eat the
monster. After the meal was finished, and after they had
smeared themselves with the fat of the animal, they set out to
communicate to the sorrowing wives the happy issue of their
adventure. The two heroes were later transformed into two
species of animal, the opossum and the wild cat, which have
not alone their origin from them, but which bear at the pre-
sent day the names and the marks of the wounds they had given
each other, by the opossum, in the shape of a furrow running
from the head to the tip of the nose, and the wild cat in the
form of spots over the whole of the skin.

Between Coflin and Sleaford bays I remarked an immense
quantity of sandhills of great size, which on Capt. Flinders
map were falsely represented as white cliffs. These mountains
of drift-sand have been heaped up by the west winds, and con-
stantly change their shape and position. According to the tradi-

0

194 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

tion of the aborigines they were raised by two of their ancestors,
named Marnpi and Jadda. A large fire proceeding from the
sea spread itself far and near along the coast, seeming about
to envelope the whole land in flames ; during the consultation
how to meet such a misfortune, these two persons suddenly
thought that the best means to extinguish the fire was by
heaping earth on it. They set,‘ therefore, to work, and raised
the sandhills as a lastmg monument of the same.

An aboriginal named Welu, celebrated for being a
furious warrior, as also a great woman lover, made the
horrible resolution of exterminating the whole tribe of
Nauos or Nawos. He succeeded in killing all the males,
by throwing one spear through all of them as they
stood in a single file. Two young men, however, escaped,
having sought refuge in the top of a tree; Welu followed
them to kill them hkewise, but a lucky stratagem saved
them from his ire; they broke the branch upon which their
enemy had climbed, he fell to the ground, and was attacked
and torn to pieces by a tame dog. Thereupon Welu was
changed into a bird, called in English the ‘ Curlew,” and
the youths who had escaped his wrath were transformed
into little lizards, the male of which is called Ibirri, and the
female Waka; this is said to have occasioned the distinction
between the human sex. This procedure did not seem to have
been approved of by the aborigines, as each sex formed a
fruitless hatred against the opposite sex of this little animal,
the men amidst jokes and laughter striving to kill the Waka,
and the women the Ibirri.

Ghost stories are not wanting amongst the aborigines. They
say there is a rock on the south side of Port Lincoln full of
deep holes, an occurrence not uncommon in the lmestone
formations of this region, inhabited by a race of dead men,
who come out in the night to eat ants’ eggs (this is a favourite
food of the aborigines), but who during the day remained
concealed in the above-mentioned holes. No one seems to
have scen these night birds, but the natives say they have
sometimes heard them calling to one another, whereupon the
former are filled with horror, and take to their heels. They
possess a number of such like tales, but these which have been
already mentioned serve but to show the foolishness, impro-
bability, and the monstrosity of the same.

Singing and dancing are the favorite and almost the sole
amusements of the aborigines of this region. They are in
the possession of a number of songs, each one consisting of

oe ae

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 195

two, or at most three lines, of one such songs the following is
a specimen :—

La pirra mirrina. LTyura tyurra tyurriru
Tyindo Katutyila. Paltai palté paltarni
Kauwirré wirrina. Ninna kutyu nyang-kfli.

In the singing of this and other songs of the same kind, each
verse is repeated twice, and when the last line is finished
they begin again at the first. They do not seem to give much
attention to the meaning of the words, so long as the neces-
sary measure and the proper number of the accented syllables
are observed. The greater number of these kind of songs
would seem to belong tc other far removed tribes, for they
are not acquainted with the meaning of any of the words, nor
do they think it worth while to make any investigation re-
garding them. Every question as to the origin of such verses
or words is replied to by the convenient and simple answer
that it isa kuri, or song. Their songs are in different mea-
sures, some being slow and serious, others quick and. lively.
These songs, however, do not offend the ear, but they are
monotonous, and require that the voice should be raised and
lowered with regularity. The natives are exceedingly accu-
rate as regards the time, and, to prevent any mistake in this
respect, they beat the time with their clubs. The end of the
song is indicated by singing the last line im a low tone, sink-
ing the voice gradually so that the last note is scarcely audible.

The aborigines generally choose the mild summer evenings
for their dancing. If there should be a moon, so much the bet-
ter ; but should her silver light be wanting, they make up for it
by bright burning fires. Any one wishing to take part in the
dance adorns himself beforehand in the followmg manner.
From each shoulder are drawn two white parallel lines down
to the waist, in such a manner however that the four lines
meet at the waist. They paint a white ring round each eye,
a broad stripe down the nose, and about six or eight whitish
lines, two and two, on the upper part of the arm; and, to put
the finishing touch to their ball costume, they bind a tuft of
green leaves round the legs above the knee. Should they be
possessors of white birds’ down, they make a wreath to go
round the head, beginning at one ear and encircling the brow,
close to the roots of the hair, to the other ear, so that it has
some slight resemblance to a lady’s nightcap. They have
different kinds of dances, but the favorite and most practised

consists in a number of jumps from side to side, and also for-
02

196 Manners and Customs of the Austrahan Natives,

wards and backwards, holding the one hand to the side to
which they jump, while the other hangs down by the body.
The dancers place themselves im an irregular line, and at such
a distance from each other as to leave sufficient room. They
advance slowly until they stand before the singers, and then
step again to the background. A dance, as the rule, lasts
scarcely more than cight or ten minutes, for the movements
of the body are so violent, and require so much exertion, that
the dancers even in this short time are fully exhausted.
Although the women are prominent in the singing, they take
but little part in the dance; and, when they do, never more
than two or three at a time. Still even this small amount of
interest on the side of the women never fails to excite the
men to greater exertions. At the end of the dance the men
sit down forty or fifty paces from the singers. Being rested
for about a minute, they come forward dancimg one after
the other, and one of the female dancers meets them. half-
way, and accompanies them in step up to the singers. At
that point where the woman meets them they make a pause,
and, later on, they repeat it two or three times, stamping
with the feet on the ground, perhaps as a sort of ball-room
courtesy towards the lady.

These evening amusements often last till long past mid-
night, especially should the number of dancers be great, or
should two different tribes grace this aboriginal ball. Then
they do their best to amuse each other by the number
and different kinds of dances; on these occasions joy and
cheerfulness are depicted on each countenance, and it can
scarcely be credited that these good-natured faces could
assume the distorted traits of deep and powerful anger, and
that the wild gestures incident to the dance should change
into wilder passions.

This, alas, happens but too often, especially during the hot
portion of the year, when they disclose an amount of irrita-
bility of which mm the cooler periods of the year they could
not be supposed capable. :

Their wars can be divided into two classes, viz., the one
beginning suddenly, and arising from some paltry cause ;
the other being the fruit of deep premeditation, and proceed-
ing from an earnest, sometimes from a true, and still oftener
from an imaginary cause. Although the behaviour of the
aborigines towards each other is generally characterised by
good-nature, mildness, and even politeness, still it often hap-
pens that friends engage in sanguinary strife with quondam

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 197

friends. The most common motives of discord are attri-
butable to the facts, firstly, that the women do not always
deport themselves as is becoming to their sex; and, secondly,
that the children quarrel among themselves, and do each other
bodily injury, which involves the parents and relations in
sometimes a bitter contest; or again, that one or other of
the men is neglected or forgotten in the distribution of the
necessaries of life.

The custom of dividing their food amongst each other is so
common, that he who fails to observe this rule is branded
as a sort of miser. An angry word, or an offensive action in
respect of any of the before-named cases, acts like an electric
spark. Each one springs up, grasps his weapons, and is ready
to retaliate upon any verbal or actual insult offered to himself
or to his friends. Although abuse made use of by the
women seldom carries any bad effect along with it, still
should it drop from the mouths of males, a fight is sure to be
the result. The friends of the insulted person often endea-
vour to appease him, and even have resort to force in order
to hold him back, but they generally fail in their object.
Clubs are first thrown, and then they rush upon each other
like tigers, beating each other with the middla, which
instrument inflicts such severe wounds that the blood flows
in streams, and the imjured person falls senseless to the
ground. Should the fight become still more furious, they
have recourse to their spears; thereupon the women and
children take to flight, and watch at a distance the terrible
play of the men’s fierce passions. They give vent to their
feelings in a sort of monotonous song, drawing the last
syllable of each word out to a great lengh, and suffering the
voice to sink at the end of each sentence; they do this with
a view perhaps of making themselves heard amid the confused
noise and clatter, perhaps in order to give more force and
energy to their invectives. Should one of the combatants
fall dangerously wounded, the groans and lamentations
in which his friends and the women indulge put an end
to the predominant noise, and gradually to the fight as
well. After peace has been restored, each one seems
sorry for having caused the momentary interruption; and
should any one have wounded his antagonist severely,
he feels for him as truly and as sincerely as any of the others.
Should loss of life or serious hurt be the result of the combat,
it often happens that these must be expiated by again renew-
ing the contest. On the other hand, if little damage has

198 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

been done nothing more is said about it, and the parties that
yesterday fell upon each other with rage and fury are to-day
the best possible friends. Those wars which are the fruit of
premeditation and deliberation are known to the natives
weeks, and even months, before they take place. A suitable
place is pitched upon by the one side, and they then send
heralds to the enemy to invite them to the contest. The
causes of such a war are seduction, murder, or an attempt of
the same. The last of these has for its ground the super-
stitious idea which prevails, that any one who has died within
a short period has been deprived of life by wicked means.
The next of kin to the murdered or dead man chooses some
of his friends, and with them traverses the country, with the
firm resolution to kill the suspected person wherever they
may discover him. In earlier years two fights took place
here, one on account of a murder committed, the other on
account of an attempt to take away life. In the first case the
murderer and the brother of the murdered man were aided
and seconded by their respective friends. They were unani-
mous that the last-named person, as the avenger of the foul
deed, should throw two spears at the perpetrator, and that if
he should fail to hit his mark the quarrel should be forgotten.
To judge from the violent and wild gestures of the warriors,
the running about, the jumping, the biting of the beards and
the weapons, the noise and the grimaces, a sanguinary combat
was expected. But such was not the case. The antagonists
trod from their own side into the foreground, and the avenger
threw a spear most skilfully, but which was parried as ably as
it was thrown. Whereupon this combat was brought to a
close. The second fight, on account of attempted “murder,
took place in Port Lincoln, and the party about to be attacked
were invited by heralds to attend the combat. The natives
upon their arrival were painted with a white colour, and wore
little peeled sticks which looked like plumes in their hair.
They marched in long line, three deep, making now and then
a halt, and with one voice poured forth loud cries. As soon
as they had completed these evolutions, the other party, who
were rather surprised, set to work to answer the salutation.
After having hastily painted themselves, and arranging them-
selves in single file, they marched in a regular quick short step
towards the enemy, who had in the meantime formed a camp.

After they had thus once or twice marched round the enemy’s
camp, they formed themselves into a dense mass, bowed their
heads, and uttered a piercing cry. They repeated these move-

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 199

ments two or three times, and then returned to their own camp
in the same order they had observed upon leaving it. That even-
ing and the greater part of the night were spent in singing and
dancing, but with sunrise of the next day the fight com-
menced. Eight men advanced from each side, making use of
mimical gestures, although the most profound silence was
observed. They formed into a row, two deep, about twenty
paces from each other, so that they came to stand two to two.
Each warrior stretched his legs apart, and planted his feet
firmly on the ground, holding a spear and sling in the right
hand, and their katta, or grubbing-stick, together with other
spears, in the left. They pushed forward their chests, and
moved their bodies from side to side, as a sort of challenge.
Each one fixed his eyes upon his especial antagonist, and
seemed to have no concern about any of the others, as if he
had nothing to fear at their hands. Nota sound was audible.
Many spears were thrown on either side, and were avoided
by moving the upper part of the body to one side, or were
parried by giving the spears a blow with the katta or other
spears held in the left hand. Thus the spears of the oppo-
nents failed to reach their mark. At length some of the
party who sent the challenge went over into the ranks of the
enemy, to show that they wished to put an end to the combat.
One quarrelsome old man, who had struck the first blow, did
not seem to be content to stay his arm without having
spilled a drop of blood. He stood opposed to a young man
of not more than twenty years of age, and he threw several
spears at him after the youth had ceased fighting. The old
rascal made use of the most insulting and provoking lan-
guage, and was paid back however in his own com. At
length some of the old man’s friends interposed, and sought
to intimidate him, but finding they could not succeed in this,
they made a point of striking up his throwing-stick as often
as he placed a spear on it, thus causing the weapon to fall
useless on the ground.

The skilful manner in which the aborigines avoid or parry
the spears is truly astonishing. Mr. Schurmann, who was an
eye-witness of the last-mentioned affair, tells us that the old
man, who was renowned as a good marksman, took such good
aim that it seemed almost a certainty that he would hit his
adversary; nevertheless, each spear was met, and glided
off the young man’s katta, and shot over his shoulder,
passing in close proximity to his ear. This can only be
accomplished by a sure eye and a firm glance, which

200 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,

are amongst the aborigines looked upon as the highest
virtues of which they can boast, and of which they are
the most proud. It has been said that the aborigines of
the country are possessed of a cowardly disposition, and it
may be that, when opposed to the whites, who are better
armed and generally mounted, they have been found wanting
in courage. But it is impossible for any one who has been
an eye-witness to one of their own fights, to form such an
opinion ; on the contrary, he will be forced to confess that,
when stirred up by passion, they will brave any danger.
They are extremely sensitive upon this pomt, and look upon.
being called a coward as the greatest insult that can be
offered. That little blood is spilled in these aboriginal con-
tests, is to be ascribed either to their skill, or to the fact that
they are by no means bloodthirsty. Although, on the one
side, they possess a fierce and hostile spirit, still, on the
other, it must be observed that they are capable of the more
noble feelings of pity and compassion. This is called forth
by a dangerous wound, as also by a severe sickness, but still
clearer is it observed at and after the death of a friend. On
such occasions they are accustomed, and particularly the
female sex, to assemble and to weep bitterly. The loud la-
mentations to which they give vent upon the death of a rela-
tion or friend may perhaps be a custom inherited from their
forefathers, for they always weep together, and at the same
time. They also employ foreign means to produce tears.
They rub the eyes and scratch the nose, if their own frame
of mind should not be sufficiently sorrowful, or if the example
of others should fail to produce genuine tears. Their weep-
ing and groans at the commencement of a lamentation seem
to be somewhat formal and forced, and thus the suspicion
arises that they seem more sorrowful than is warranted by
their true feelings. Nevertheless, the Rev. Mr. Schurmann
believes that the aborigines feel deeply and mourn heartily
the death of a friend, upon the following grounds, viz. :—
For weeks and months they bemoan their deaths, especially
at eventime, when they are assembled for rest, and when
their hearts and minds are open to the inflyences of sorrow
and grief for the departed friend. One of them is accustomed
to break out suddenly into a long, protracted, plaintive tone,
and gradually his example is followed by the others. After
this lamentation, a profound silence is observed, and in truth
their behaviour is such as belongs to persons oppressed by
sreat grief. For years after the death of a friend, on no occa-

in particular of the Port Lincoln District. 201

sion whatever do they pronounce his name. ‘This, as one
might suppose, does not proceed from superstition, but from
the simple reason that they do not wish again to awake their
slumbering feelings, or, to use their own expression, that they
do not wish to weep so much. Should it be absolutely neces-
sary to name a deceased person, it is done in the following
manner :—I am a widow, fatherless, brotherless, &c., as the
case may be, instead of saying my father or my brother is
dead. The last ground on which Mr. Schurmann bases the
sincerity of their grief is, that they risk their lives to revenge
their deceased friend, if suspecting their death to have been
caused by foul means.

Although at the interment of the dead certain rites and
customs are generally observed, these are at times dispensed
with, as was instanced in the case of an old man. After
having dug a hole five feet deep and four feet long, and
spread some dry grass in the bottom, they lowered the corpse
into it, with the legs bent upwards, as the hole was too short
to receive it in its proper position. The head, as is invariably
done, was placed at the west end, from the notion that the
departed souls all reside in an island situated eastward. The
body was then covered with a kangaroo skin, and sticks
haying been driven immediately above it lengthwise into the
sides of the grave, leaving a vacant space above it, the whole
was then filled up with earth. As the last of this simple
proceeding, some branches or bushes are collected round the
grave, with the view, as I should think, of preventing stray
cattle and horses from trampling upon it.

In the immediate neighbourhood only of European settle-
ments, where they can obtain the necessary tools, are they
able to dig such deep graves. Further up in the interior,
however, where they are confined to the yam sticks for the .
operation of digging, the graves are made only sufficiently
deep to admit the body, the sticks being driven in immedi-
ately above it. This custom is always observed, very pro-
bably im order to prevent the wild dogs from scraping up the
body.

During my stay, in 1851, of a few wecks at a station forty
or fifty miles north of Port Lincoln, I had the opportunity of
witnessing a rather premature act of these natives. A woman
had fallen ill, and one of the men on the second day having
called at the station for the loan of a spade to dig the grave
with, I went on the following day to see where she had been
buried, when, to my astonishment, I found her recovered,

202 Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives, &c.

and quite well. The sight of the grave, however, which was
prepared for her, cannot, at all events, have been accompanied
with pleasing impressions.

The natives inhabiting the triangular peninsula of Port
Lincoln are divided into several tribes, two of which are in
daily intercourse with the Europeans, viz.—the Nauo or
Nawo, and the Parnkalla. In addition to these, the natives
mention three other tribes, as known to them, viz.—the
Pukunnas, in the N.E.; the Kukatas, in the N.W.; and the
Negannityddis, in the N.; the latter occupying the territory
between those of the two other tribes, some of which do oc-
casionally visit the European settlements.

All these tribes seem upon the whole to entertain a friendly
intercourse with each other ; at least, apparently, there is not
so much quarrelling gommg on among them as among the
natives living more to the eastward.

The natives, in coming in contact with others of a different
tribe, are very shy at their first meeting. They try to avoid
each other, and do not speak together, unless unavoidably
obliged to do so, or induced by a mutual friend.

Every attempt at estimating the number of these natives
is made at a hazard, as all the members of a tribe never meet
together. The general opinion is that an estimate at an
average of 300 individuals for each tribe is by far below the
actual number.

The chief difference of the various tribes consists in their
language and dialects. This, however, causes no great in-
convenience to those living on the borders of their territories,
as each native understands, at least, the language of the ad-
joining district ; thus, they frequently keep up their conver-
sations in two different languagesg in the same manner as if
a German and Englishman were to talk together, each in his
own language, but both understanding that of the other
party. This peculiarity frequently occurs in families mter-
marrying in the neighbouring tribe, for none of the members
ever think of attempting to speak the language of the other

arty.
: ind conclusion, I would state that every opportunity should
be taken by every one coming in contact with our aborigines
to collect as much knowledge as possible of their manners
and customs before it is too late; and I may quote Mr.
Moffat’s words, which, although referrmg to the Africans,
apply also to our aborigines.

He writes:—“I have traversed those regions in which,

Description of a New Species of Plumatella. 203

according to the testimony of the farmers, thousands once
dwelt, drinking at their own fountains, and killing their own
game; but now, alas, scarcely is a family to be seen! It is
impossible to look over those now uninhabited plains and
mountain glens without feeling the deepest melancholy, whilst
the winds moaning in the vale seem to echo back the sound,
«© Where are they ?”

[While the foregoing sheets were going through the press, intelligence
having reached Melbourne of the value, as an edible seed, of the Marsilee
hirsuta (or Nardo), as found so useful in the Victorian Expedition, and
which was the means of saving the lives of King, the sole survivor of
Burke’s party, as well as those of Lyons and M‘Pherson, who had been sent
with despatches to Mr. Burke, it has occurred to me that it would be well
to mention that I found the same plant growing in Dumby Bay, Port
Lincoln ; but I did not observe that the natives had ever made any use of it
as an article of food.]

Arr. XI.—Description of a New Species of Plumatella. By
P. H. McGitiivray, A.M., M.R.C.S.

{Read before the Society, October 29th, 1860.]

Tue study of the fresh water polyzoa has been so completely
neglected by naturalists, except im Europe and North
America, that at the date of publication of Professor Allman’s
great monograph, no species were known to occur south of
the north temperate zone. Since that time a new form—
Hislopia lacustris—has béen described from Nagpoor, in
Central India, by Mr. H. J. Carter, who has also found in
the tanks at Bombay a species of Lophopus and a Plumatelia,
identical with P. stricta, Allm.* With these exceptions I
believe that no addition to the geographical range has been
made since the appearance of Allman’s work.

Having long been familiar with the extreme richness of
our fauna in marine polyzoa, I was satisfied that fresh water
forms required only to be looked for to be found; and Mr.
Aplin, of the geological survey, to whom I expressed this
opinion, at once commenced the search. The result has

* Annals and Magazine of Natural History, March 1858, and May 1859.

204 Description of a New Species of Plumaitella.

been the discovery of a species of Plumatella in great abun-
dance, in the quarries at Richmond, and I have no doubt
that many others will ere long be added to the list.

Plumatella Aplinii, nu. sp.

Czenzecium dichotomously or irregularly branched, creeping,
cells expanded upwards, mouth oblique, oval, with the
anterior lip pomted; a strong ridge running along the front
of the ceenzcium, and extending entirely or partly up the
cells; no furrow; tentacles, sixty; statoblasts elongated.

Locality : On stones in old quarries at Richmond, on tim-
ber in the lagoon in the Survey Paddock, and on a stump
in the lagoon in the Botanic Gardens.—C. D’Oyiny H.
Apuin, Esq. ©

This beautiful polyzoon occurs in masses of various extent,
im some specimens covering several square imches. The
ceeneclum is regulary branched, sometimes leaving wide
interspaces, at other times densely covering the object to
which it is attached. It is usually closely adherent, but
occasionally the extremities of the branches are free and
semi-erect. On the front of the branches of the cenzecium
there is a continuous prominent keel or ridge, which also
extends up the cells. The cells are short, expanding towards
the orifice, so as to be. in some cases almost funnel-shaped ;
the mouth is oblique, oval, and frequently, from the con-
tinuation of the ridge, poimted anteriorly. There is no groove.
Only free stato-blasts have been observed ; they are of an
oblong elliptical form, with a wide annulus.

The characters presented by this species are so well marked,
that it may at once be readily distinguished from all pre-
viously known. Its nearest ally is probably P. emarginata,
Allm., with which it agrees in the presence of a ridge, and in
the elongated stato-blasts ; but differs in the form of the cell,
and in the absence of the furrow at the cell-mouth, and in
the number of the tentacles.

a a

Indigenous Fibrous Plants. 205

Arr. XII.—Indigenous Fibrous Plants. By F. A. Corsert,
Esq.
[Read before the Royal Society, December 17th, 1860.]

In the report from the Exploring Expedition under the
command of Mr. Burke, dated 30th October, 1860, we are
informed that the mallow grows in remarkable luxuriance in
the barren country beyond the Darling. Mr. Wills, the
astronomer and surveyor of the party, says, “It clothes the
banks of Wonaminta Creek, and grows to an immense size
on nearly all the creeks out here.” This statement has
suggested to me the submission to the meeting of specimens
of oakum and rope made of the fibres of the mallow, also of
specimens of paper, oakum and rope manufactured from
another indigenous plant, which, it will be observed, is a
description of rush or flag. At any time it would be interest-
ing to contemplate the possibility of a tract of the interior
of this continent, at present little better than a desert, pos-
sessing valuable natural resources in the way of vegetable
production, but it is peculiarly so at the present moment,
when an inquiry relative to our indigenous fibrous substances
is bemg conducted by a committee of this Society at the
instance of the Imperial Government.

The fibrous properties of the mallow, as well as those of
the Lepidosperma gladiata, the other plant alluded to, were
first made known to Europeans by Mr. Alexander Tolmer, of
Adelaide. It appeared, however, in the course of some dis-
cussions which took place in the Legislative Council of South
Australia, on an application made for leave to bring in a Bill
to secure to that gentleman a patent right in his discovery,
that the aborigines were acquainted with some of the useful
properties of these plants. They were, in fact, used by them
in making baskets and fishing-lines, and, on this account, it
seems that a select committee, to whom the matter was
referred, could not agree to recommend the grant to Mr.
Tolmer of the exclusive right of using, manufacturing, and
exporting these plants. The justice of this refusal has been
questioned by the friends of Mr. Tolmer, who hold that a
discovery was undoubtedly made by him, inasmuch as he
went beyond the blacks in the application of the properties
of the plants, and in ascertaining by experiment their fitness
for the manufacture of paper, pasteboard, papier mache,
oakum and rope, all articles of great commercial importance.

206 Indigenous Fibrous Plants.

Before exhibiting these specimens to the Society, I thought
it proper to bring them under the notice of our eminent
botanist, Dr. Mueller, more especially with the view of
ascertaining whether there existed in these colonies an
indigenous plant resembling, yet differing from, the common
English marsh-mallow, or whether the plant in question was
identical with that growing about Melbourne, because it
would be a very singular fact if valuable properties, existing
in a plant so familiar to the scientific men of Europe,
remained altogether undiscovered. Moreover, it seemed to
me that, if the plant experimented on by Mr. Tolmer
were identical with the European, grave doubts might be
entertaimed as to the value of his discovery. Unfortunately,
in consequence of my not being im a position to submit a
leaf of the plant, a positive statement could not be hazarded
by Dr. Mueller, but it is almost sufficient to be able to state
that he has little doubt of its being the Lavatera plebeja, a
native plant, extending from South Australia, through
Victoria, into New South Wales, and resembling the genuine
English marsh-mallow. The latter, it appears, has not yet
immigrated into Australia, the plant usually found here bemg
the British dwarf mallow.

Dr. Mueller also mforms me that the Lavatera plebeja is
perennial, and may be obtained in considerable quantity
along the Murray and many of its tributaries, bemg besides
scattered over other parts of the colony. A perennial plant,
it may be cbserved, provided its growth is rapid, and admits
of a large crop being annually removed, appears to have its
relative advantages in a country possessmg abundance of
land, and where tillage will in all probability be costly for a
long period to come. Moreover, the luxuriant growth of the
mallow in tracts of country which appear to be comparatively
useless for other purposes, but which nevertheless possess the
advantage of beimg adjacent to our greatest navigable rivers,
ought to be an inducement to test its value, directing special
attention to the quality and quantity of fibre of a year’s
growth, investigating the cultivable qualities of the plant
and its action on the soil; also ascertaming how far the ex-
haustion occasioned by annual cropping may be supplied by
inundations or other available means of restoration. These
are important considerations; for articles of which the con-
sumption is great, such as paper and rope, cannot be suffi-
ciently and uniformly supplied by the spontaneous action of
nature ; neither could a shrub, or a tree, which takes a long

Rania riant Ses

LS el

a

Indigenous Fibrous Plants. 207

time to arrive at maturity, yielding a small supply of material
in proportion to the area under plantation, ever fully answer
our requirements in the way of fibrous substances.

As regards the preparation of the mallow for use, Mr. Tol-
mer thus describes his process :—‘ The Hibiscus (erroneously
so called by him) may be pulled up by the roots, and hung up
in bundles to dry. When sufficiently dry, I cut them up in
a suitable machine—an ordinary chaff-cutting machine will
answer the purpose. They are then to be boiled in a diluted
solution of caustic alkali, and afterwards bleached by chloride
of lime, or any of the well known processes. It is of importance
that the gummy matter should be extracted. The material
will now be in a fit state to be manufactured into paper, and I
would remark that the manufacture of paper will now be car-
ried on as if the paper were being made of rags. In using it
for other purposes (oakum, rope, &c.), the system ordinarily
adopted will be applied.”

Respecting the Lepidosperma gladiata, we are furnished
with more positive information. A manufacturer in England
who has tried its paper-making qualities, reports that there is
no doubt whatever of its making good paper, adding, how-
ever, that the price, exact loss of weight, &c., can only be
determined by a continuous working of some quantity. As
the nearest calculation he could form from the experience of
one trial, he estimates the cost of chemicals to make one ton
of paper at £3 10s., and fuel £1 10s., English prices. He
further adds that half the rush is waste. Referring to the
exportation of the plant to England, supposing it not to be
divested of its gummy matter, he recommends it to be cut in
short lengths, half an inch or three or four inches long, in
order to its bemg packed closely for the purpose of diminish-
ing the freight ; or, in order to avoid the expense of bags or
canvas covers, he advises to cut, lay the flag, and bind it up
very closely in bundles or sheaves like wheat.

As to manufacturing in the colonies, he states that the
supply of material and the power of the mill should be equal
to produce six tons of paper per week, as the same number of
hands would be necessary to make three as six tons, and the
cost of apparatus the same, without much difference in other
things. The estimated cost, im England, of delivering the
manufactured paper at market, embracing every expense, in-
cluding duty, making, carriage, fuel, and chemicals, dating
the calculation from the deposit of the raw material in the
mill, would be £25 per ton of paper, the value of which would

208 Indigenous Fibrous Plants.

be from £50 to £60. This leaves a margin for all expenses
attendant on providing the raw material, moving it from the
place of its growth in Australia to the mill m England,
together with all charges and profits thereon, of £25 at least,
on the quantity required for the manufacture of one ton of
paper; or, half bemg reckoned as waste, makes the value of
one ton of the plant at the mill in England, £12 10s.

The Lepidosperma gladiata grows i great abundance on
the coasts of New Holland and Tasmania, and is of that cha-
racter that it may be cut down annually, and will sprig year
after year from the same roots. With reference to this, Mr.
Tolmer says—“ I cut the plant away from the bottom of the
stem, without injury to the root, leaving that to shoot out
again.” And, as regards his mode of dealing with the rush
so cut away, he adds—“It is allowed to remain on the
ground ten or fifteen days, exposed to the action of the night
dews, and to the hot sun m the day, occasionally being
turned over; and by this exposure the plant will become par-
tially bleached.”

Turning to economical considerations, it may be observed
that, even if these plants can be produced here at a low cost,
their great bulk is undoubtedly a serious drawback on their
exportation to Europe, but that, on the other hand, this
very circumstance offers an inducement—a natural protection
—to the manufacture of the article on the spot. I would
further remark that the constantly mcréasmg number of
uses to which paper is applied holds out very great encou-
ragement for local manufacture. The mvention of bitumen-
ized paper drainage pipes, for which a factory has been
erected in Melbourne, is an event which ought to lead to
inquiry into the value of our indigenous plants suitable for
paper making, inasmuch as there would be a great consump-
tion of any substance which would enable the drainage pipes
to be furnished at a reduced price. The agriculturist would
benefit by a new object of cultivation, for which there would
be ready sale; while success m production would cheapen
the means of drainage and irrigation—two of his greatest
wants, and each of nearly equal importance in this country.

I may, in conclusion, add that Mr. Tolmer, taking advan-
tage of our legislation, secured a patent for this colony; and
it is to be hoped that if it should be proved that these plants
are valuable, either for local use or for exportation, the toil,
labor, and expenditure of that gentleman may be rewarded.

Remarks on Professor McCoy’s Commentary. 209

Art. XIII.—Remarks on Professor McCoy’s Commentary. By
Rev. W. B. Crarxe, M.A., F.G.S., &c., &c.

[Read before the Royal Society of Victoria, December 10th, 1860. ]

I was not aware, till I perused Professor McCoy’s “ Commen-
tary’’ on my letter, that I had offered any grounds of offence
in it; and I deem it only right to express my sincere regret
that, if so, I should have unknowingly made his Excellency
the President the medium of anything so unbecoming my own
intention. I had, however, stated that I did not “ wish to
speak disrespectfully of Professor McCoy’s judgment and
learning,” and if he has not followed my example, it is my
misfortune, and not my fault.

The preceding letter was too hastily penned to bear the
construction of a deliberate memoir; and though I certainly
sanctioned its being made use of, I did not suppose that it
would have attracted the weight of Mr. McCoy’s unkindest
criticism.

In a little work*, recently published, I have given a concise
account of the carboniferous formation of New South Wales,
and also a brief statement of the controversy respecting it.
I have, thereim, given full credit to the fact alleged that the
plant lately found in Victoria is a Teniopteris. But I must
observe that, except in His Excellency’s letter, to which the
above was a reply, I have never heard a syllable, either from
Mr. McCoy nor any one else, about the plant. There could,
therefore, be no denial of Mr. McCoy’s assertions, for I have
never seen anything that he has said or written on the subject,
save the above “‘ Commentary.”

My remarks, therefore, were those of one who, having his
own views upon a question, naturally required evidence
before he submitted that question to a decision which opposed
those views. Hence, I entered into a defence of my views,
and gaye a definition of the genus by way of inquiry, which
was the only course open to me at this distance.

In the third paragraph of the “ Commentary,” Mr. McCoy
attempts to show that my reference to six should have been
twenty-three species. But if he will read my letter again, he

* Researches in the Southern Gold-fields of New South Wales, chapter xiv.
P

210 Remarks on Professor McCoy’s Commentary.

will find that I allude only in that number to Teeniopteris, and
to no other genus ; whereas he includes the other genera, to
which I did not then allude.

His third remark, in the third paragraph, does not appear
to me to settle the-question in reference to Virginia; for the
coal-field of Virginia is, as respects zoological fossils, exactly
in the condition of the coal-field of New South Wales; and,
therefore, so far they are certainly parallel; but neither can
be proved to be oolitic, except by the plants; and Mr.
Bunbury distinctly poimts out that the evidence of the
Virginian plants is ambiguous, and he concludes that the
Richmond coal-field might as well be referred to the triassic
or to the jurassic series*.

In the fourth paragraph, Mr. McCoy assumes that I have
used the word formation in the sense of bed. That I presume
would be unnecessary to reply to. But when I wrote that
passage, I wrote from memory. I have since found Mr.
Oldham’s letter (which I place for reference in the hands of
His Excellency the President), and I find he mentions five
distinct groups, all unconformable. He says, that in the
lowest beds he finds Glossopteris Browniana Vertebraria, as
in Australia; and he adds, ‘we have Glossopteris in the
higher beds also, but not the same species.” I understand
Mr. Oldham to speak of the higher and the lower beds in
reference to the whole mass of the coal-bearing rocks, which
he has separated into five groups.

Now, Mr. McCoy says the Glossopteris, &c., accompany
Ammonites in India, and therefore, are oolitic. But he did
not mean, surely, to say this of Bengal. He must have
alluded to cutch, where no doubt such plants as Ptilophylum,
Lycopodites, Codites, Equisetites, &c., occur with upper
oolitic shells. I did not know, however, that there was any
authority “twenty years ago” for affirming, as Mr. McCoy
does, that the genera Teniopteris and Glossopteris are,
even in cutch, associated with the fossils named. Nor have
we any reason to believe that it is the case now; for Mr.
Oldham distinctly refers the cutch beds, not to the oolites,
but to the wealden. If so, they cannot contain, as Mr.
McCoy says, “‘ the lower oolitic fossils of the clear sections of
Europe.”

Respecting Africa, I am quite aware that Glossopteris
occurs in the Dicynodon beds; but I am also aware that Mr.

*Q. J. iii, 287—8.

Remarks on Professor McCoy’s Commentary. 211

Morris has determined a series of plants from the Dicynodon
strata to be either ¢riassic or jurassic.

So thoroughly indistinct is the settlement of the question
‘in all quarters, as refers to the occurrence of those plants
which Mr. McCoy asserts cannot be here otherwise than
oolitic. What Mr. Morris says of the Dicynodon strata
plants, Mr. Bunbury says of the Richmond plants; and,
therefore, I consider that, even if my own ideas be alto.
gether erroneous, the question is not necessarily settled, as
the “ Commentary” would have it.

I am next assailed on the ground of my allusion to Mr.
Jukes, who, if not a ‘ Paleeontologist,” is the author of an
excellent manual, in which he follows Brown. Both, Mr.
McCoy considers mistaken ; the places [ am very sarcastically
referred to in Mr. Jukes’ book were all marked down in my
own copy, and I had ticked off, as references, the respective
pages one against the other; I was, therefore, aware of all
the Professor mentions; but, nevertheless, I considered
myself justified in quoting Brown, Mr. Jukes’ references to
whom I have verified.

I am much obliged for Mr. McCoy’s “ better list of the
distribution of clearly ascertained species of Tzeniopteris ;”
and only regret that he had not given the information with-
out calling in question any other person’s sagacity.

“Tn the next paragraph,” Mr. McCoy criticises what I say
of Phillips’ Geology of Yorkshire, and accuses me of mis-
stating a fact, viz., that in his book there is no figure of Tz-
niopteris.

If Mr. McCoy had the figure of 7. vittata in Phillips’ book,
then it is not in my (2nd 1835) edition; for the figure
t. 8, f. 5, is therein named “ Scolopendrium solitarium,’ and
I have mentioned that, though Morris classes this as 7’. vittata,
Goppert calls it an “ Aspidites.” Certainly, as my knowledge
has not yet extended to the rejection of Géppert’s determi-
nations by “all more modern writers,’ Mr. McCoy might
have saved himself the trouble of wrongly accusing me of a
misquotation.

But Mr. McCoy himself has (I hope unwittingly) made an
incorrect statement in his version of the fifth paragraph of
my letter; for Mr. Dana did not visit the Australian locali-
ties since Mr. McCoy wrote his paper on my fossils, but ezght
or ten years before, in 1839; consequently lis getting more
fossils without altering Mr. McCoy’s views, was simply an

P 2

212 Remarks on Professor McCoy’s Commentary.

impossibility. I was with Mr. Dana when he procured some
of them, and therefore know the facts.

Again, there is another mistake in what Mr. McCoy calls
the most disagreeable part of his task, and he quite mistakes |
in that all I contend for.

Mr. McCoy decried at first any coal beds but those of
oolitic age. (See his own quotation in the Commentary.) I.
forwarded a fossil to England by the late Admiral King,
which, he says, is a species of Lepidodendron, to prove that
there was a coal formation not oolitic ; there was no intention
whatever of alluding to any individual beds, such as Mr.
McCoy now imagines; for my view was all along, that the
divisions (which are now defined in my book) were parts of
one formation, and therefore I considered the fossil in ques-
tion good evidence. Singular, however, to say, Professor
Edward Forbes says that, in all probability it was not a Lepi- |
dodendron (Lectures on Gold, page 53). The specimen was
not given to me “ by an unscientific friend,’ nor did it come
«from a geologically unknown locality in Queensland ;” it was
brought down by the late Dr. Leichhardt, who was an admir-
able botanist, and an excellent geologist, and the locality was
on the Manilla River, i New South Wales, where that fossil
abounds. As to what Mr. McCoy says about tardiness of
admission as to the locality whence the Lepidodendron sent
to England came, he has an advantage over me. I have no
recollection of any such tardiness beyond that which was
necessary in answering a correspondence between New South
Wales and England—in those days an affair of many months. .
If Mr. McCoy wrote to me, I doubt not that I replied to his
letter. But I remember sending home a cast of another
Lepidodendron, which Mr. Templer found at Pine Ridge,
Wellington Valley, respecting which I never got any infor-
mation, nor reply to my letter, nor do I know what became
of either. To the best of my recollection, I never received
from Mr. McCoy, whilst he was in England, more than two
short letters in my life.

“ The vague baseless supposition,’ mentioned next, is, I am
happy to say, that of Mr. Morris, and, in adopting that sup-
position, I am willing to suffer the reproof which I share in
such good company.

As to the specimen of Lepidodendron from Gipps Land,
in the Melbourne Museum, it was not “ pointed out to me.”
I visited the Museum for the first time alone, and saw it

Remarks on Professor McCoy’s Commentary. 213

there to my entire satisfaction, but wished it had not been in
a corner.

Respecting the New South Wales plant which I showed
Mr. McCoy, im his room at the Museum, from below the coal
seams interpolating beds with mountain limestone fossils, I
repudiate his history of what was said at the time, and am
astonished at his making out something like an attempt to
impose incorrect evidence upon him.

Nor do I understand what he means about the sections.
I had no drawings of any sections with me, I could *not,
therefore, exhibit any. And, if the sections be taken to
mean not a drawing, but an account, of beds in succession, I
can only reply that I believe Mr. McCoy has had explained
to him long before that there is nowhere in New South Wales
an uninterrupted series from the top to the bottom of the
carboniferous rocks in any one section, and therefore it was
easy fo answer any question put in the negative, without in-
volving any contradiction to Professor McCoy, as I thought
it would give him pleasure; and it is a sorry retwmn for my
civility, to find them used in this strange manner against me.

No doubt I was asked, nay “ pressed,” as to whether I got
it myself, and if it could not have fallen in, &c., &c., which 1
really thought quite unnecessary, and not a dignified way of
treating me; but I gave the only answer I could give con-
sistent with truth—that, though a stone could fall to the
bottom of a shaft, this specimen could not, for the Newcastle
seams do not exist there at all above the upper beds, which
are those of Mr. McCoy’s carboniferous rocks, and I relied
on the authority of the gentleman who sent it. As to the
upper beds at the shaft, I speak from my own knowledge of
the locality, having been there, though Mr. McCoy asserts
not. But I have not been down the shaft. Mr. McCoy will
recollect a specimen I asked him to name, sent from Sydney.
That came from the top beds of the shaft section. As the
story stands in the “Commentary,” it helps to make up an
item against me; but it does not affect the truth, that, though
I did not find the fossil myself in the shaft, I relied upon the
testimony I had. And now I may explain that the Honorable
Bourne Russell, member of the Legislative Council of New
South Wales, having opened pits near Stony Creek, in the
mountain limestone beds (from which he sent me specimens
of the whole series of the beds from top to bottom) below all
the fossiliferous beds and coal seams, came upon the bed
from which he sent me a large slab, on which the fossil was

214 Remarks on Professor McCoy’s Commentary.

marked, and of which I carried a small brittle portion to
Melbourne, with an abundance of other fossils from different
portions of the colony, for the sole purpose of exhibiting
them, and I have no doubt that Mr. Russell will be able to
prove whether the slab came from the bottom or the top of
the shaft, if any one is anxious to inquire.

To sum up all, I may here state that, though it is very
easy to make the “ worst appear the better reason,” I have
no object in any controversy on this question but truth.
Having, since my acquaintance with the whole of the facts,
always found a difficulty in reconciling the idea of two epochs
in the formation of the deposits including our coal-beds, in
consequence of the apparent continuous succession of those
deposits, and the occurrence of coal throughout, together
with the absence of oolitic zoological, and the presence of
palzeozoic zoological forms, I have not seen fit to renounce
the opinion which is shared by others as well as by myself,
because at present we have no grounds to do so; but it is
easy to gather from this paper, as well as from other evi-
dences of my own, that I am quite ready to admit, when
proved, that some of the beds are younger than my fourth
division or Mr. McCoy’s base of the carboniferous system,
and may, with the example of India before us, be even
younger than oolite; but, with the idea of one succession, I
must renounce the idea of all above the base being oolitic.

If sufficient evidence be produced to prove my opmions
to be erroneous, I will readily renounce them; only, I shall
take the liberty of expressing my deep regret if anything I
happen to say excite feelmgs and expressions which are
unbecoming the philosophy of a civilized era.

ES

Note on the Rev. Mr. Clarke’s “ Remarks,” §c.

res)
heed
or

Art. XIV.—WNote on the Rev. Mr. Clarke’s “ Remarks,” &c.
By Proressor McCoy.

[Read before the Royal Society, Dec. 10th, 1860.]

I wisn to avoid all irrelevant matter, and to re-direct atten-
tion to the real point at issue, namely:—Mr. Clarke holds
and has always held that the “‘ Glossopteris beds’ associated
with the coal of New South Wales are palzozoic, and belong
to the same geological epoch as the underlying marine beds
containing lower carboniferous animal remains. I hold and
have always held that the aforesaid ‘‘ Glossopteris beds” are
mesozoic, and that there is a great geological interval separat-
ing them from the carboniferous or mountain limestone series
of marine fossiliferous beds below them.

Mr. Clarke admits the identity I have dwelt upon between
the ‘Glossopteris beds” of New South Wales, India, Africa,
and Virginia. Baron de Zigno has drawn, in the present
year, the relation much closer than before between all these
and the plant beds of the oolitic series of the Venetian Alps
and Yorkshire; and not one of the references of Mr. Clarke
gwes the slightest color to his view of their being paleozoic.

I should wish to stop here, but am constrained to touch
the points in Mr. Clarke’s “ Remarks” in the order given.

Ist. The remark that his reference to 6 instead of 23 species
of plants in the Glossopteris beds of New South Wales alluded
only to Teniopteris, may he compared with the original pas-
sage, bearing in mind that there are not six species of fossil
Australian Teniopteris to refer to, but only one, and that dis-
puted by him.

2nd. The remark on the absence of oolitic animal fossils in
Virginia, overlooks the circumstance that I pointed out the
fact in answer to his objection that we could not have oolitic
plants in Australia, where no animal fossils of that age had
been found, the age of the Virginian (Richmond) coal-beds
being determined by the plants. The argumentative way in
which Mr, Bunbury’s saying ‘that the Richmond coal-field
might as well be referred to the triassic as to the jurassic
series” is put forth here, would seem to imply that the triassic
was a palzeozoic formation; it is, of course, unnecessary for
me to say that this is not the case. Several triassic species

216 = Note on the Rev. Mr. Clarke’s “ Remarks,” &c.

of plants are jurassic also, and both formations are equally
mesozoic, and not paleeozoic, as would be requisite to help
Mr. Clarke’s argument.

3rd. Jam glad to see that, as I supposed, Mr. Oldham’s
observations are not so opposed to those of every one else as
they at first seemed, and there is nothing in his remarks now
quoted, confirmatory of Mr. Clarke’s belief of the Glossopteris
and Vertebraria beds being paleozoic. I do not feel called
upon to give here any accountof the laborsof geologists among
the mesozoic rocks of India, contaiming lower oolitic shells
and plants;-but neither they nor I referred to Cutch, and the
question to be settled was whether the New South Wales
Glossopteris beds were paleeozoic or not.

4th. As to Morris’s saying the African “ Dicynodon beds”
with Glossopteris may be either triassic or jurassic, I have
only to repeat that both these are of the mesozoic age, for
which I contend, and neither of them of the paleozoic age,
for which Mr. Clarke contends.

5th. I did not “ assail’’? Mr. Clarke for his quotation from
Jukes’ Manual, but I gave him a number of others from the
same book, to show that the one he used was wrong ; but now
that Mr. Clarke says that he was aware of all these references,
he does not explain how it was he came to recommend to the
notice of this Society the single incorrect one, which he now
shows he was fully aware only seemed to favor his side of the
argument by the accidental error of the compiler.

6th. I did not accuse Mr. Clarke of misquoting Phillips’
Geology of Yorkshire. I quoted a figure in it, and he wrote
to deny its existence. I then laid the work with figure on
the table, for the inspection of members, but bowed, of course,
to the Rey. Mr. Clarke’s positive assertion that that to which
I referred had no existence. His remarks on the synonomy
show that he has not had time nor opportunity to acquaint
himself with the literature of the subject. A little study will,
I have no doubt, enable him to perceive that what is now
called Teniopteris vitiata, was first figured by Pluillips
under another name, not used by subsequent writers for his
plant.

7th. I should have said that Mr. Dana published (imstead
of got) several more fossils beyond those known to me or pre-
vious writers, after I had published my paper ‘On the Zo-
ology and Botany of the Rocks associated with the Coal-fields
of Australia,’ without altermg my views. A reference to
Dana’s papers on the subject, in Selliman’s American Journal

On the Multisection of an Angle, &c. 217

of Science (about twelve or fourteen years ago) will show the
numerous additional fossils which he got, all with the same
geological significance, as I stated, though said to be simply
an impossibility by Mr. Clarke.

8th. The matter of the Lepidodendron from the Manilla
river (but not, as it should be for the argument, from the
Glossopteris beds) will be well understood from my former
“Commentary.” On communicating, two days ago, with
Mr. Selwyn, he reiterates his possitive assertion that he told _
Mr. Clarke of the Gipps Land Lepidodendron in our Museum,
and brought him to the case, and pointed it out to him; the
insinuation of Mr. Clarke was that he discovered an impor-
tant fossil in our national collection, of the nature of which
we were ignorant. Mr. Selwyn is aware that I determined
its true nature at the first glance, some years before, and that
he expressly pointed it out and explained it to Mr. Clarke.
Further, Mr. Selwyn (who was present) again authorises me
to say that the account I have given in the ‘‘ Commentary”
exactly coincides with the distinct impression he received
from Mr. Clarke’s account of the coalpits at Stoney Creek ;
he remembers perfectly, as I do, the sections drawn with a
pencil, by Mr. Clarke, illustrating his statement—that the pit
was sunk through the plant beds near the surface into the
marine beds, and that he had not been there, and had no
evidence that the plant specimen had actually been in situ
below the marine beds.

Art. XV.—On the Multisection of an Angle by means of the
Cycloid. By the Hon. Davin Exxior Winxte, M.D., M.L.C.

[With a Plate.]

[Read before the Royal Society of Victoria, 25th June, 1860.]

Tue writer of this paper feels that he owes some apology for
venturing to offer a new illustration of the trisection or mul-
tisection of an angle. He has devoted very little time to
mathematical studies, and his attention was directed, quite
accidentally, to the subject of this paper.

It is well known that there is no mode by which this pro-

218 On the Multisection of an Angle

blem can be solved by pure Geometry, that is, by circles and
straight lines.

There are several other curves, however, by means of which
an angle may be trisected, but these curves are difficult to be
described, as the hyperbola, trisectrix, quadratrix, &e. The
trisection of an angle, therefore, by means of these curves,
possesses little practical interest: .

The object of the writer is to point out that the properties
of the cycloid afford a ready means of trisecting or multi-
secting any angle. The cycloid differs from the other curves
above-mentioned in the comparative facility with which a
perfectly accurate figure may be obtamed. Indeed there is
no reason why, by a simple mechanism, the cycloid may not
be figured with as much mathematical precision as the circle
itself.

The cycloid, also, is a curve which is nearly allied to the
circle, and its properties, which are derived from this rela-
tion, are readily understood. There is another property of
the cycloid which the writer has not seen noticed before,
viz., that there is a poimt in the curve where its cord be-
comes a tangent of the generating circle, and is exactly equal
to the arc of the circle contained between this point and the
base of the cycloid, which becomes the opposite,tangent. At
this point, therefore, two tangents of the generating circle are
each equal to the arc of the circle, which they enclose, that is,
each tangent is equal to twice its own arc.

This property of the cycloid appeared to the writer to offer
some clue to a geometrical quadrature of the circle. In this
expectation he was disappomted. It was, however, m direct-
ing his attention to the possible solution of this problem by
means of the cycloid, that he discovered that property of this
curve by which any angle may be readily divided into any
number of equal parts.

In order to obtain a perfectly accurate figure of the cycloid,
the writer has designed a simple instrument, which 1s figured
in the accompanying plate. It consists of two wheels, of dif-
ferent sizes, attached together by the same pivot, and confined
between two parallel bars, on one of which each wheel rolls.
A lead poimt, to describe the curve, is fixed in the flange
of the larger wheel, exactly opposite its rolling edge.

The two wheels are in contact with each other, and, when
in motion, rotate in opposite directions. The upper bar is im
a different plane from the lower, to receive the smaller wheel.

The side pieces of the instrument are at right angles to the

by means of the Cycloid. 219

parallel bars, and project beyond them. They are intended
to rest on the paper, or plain surface, on which the curve is to
be figured. 'The bars are tongued to receive the wheels, which
are grooved to retain them in their true position.

The larger wheel rolls on the lower bar, and exactly corre-
sponds with it, and, when the instrument is‘used, there is just
sufficient space between the large wheel and the paper to allow
free motion to the marking pomt. The parallel bars are
so placed in contact with the wheels as to prevent any sliding
motion. The instrument, as figured in the plate, is reduced
one half. The curve itself was figured by the instrument, and
has not been reduced.

PROBLEM.

To trisect an angle by means of the cycloid.

Let AB be the axis, BC the base, and AC the curve of a
semi-cycloid; let D be the centre of the generating circle,
and let ADE be any angle which it is proposed to trisect.

Through D draw DM parallel to BC and intersecting the
circumference of the circle at F. Through E, draw EG
parallel to BC and intersecting the curve of the cycloid at G.
Take EH, equal to two-thirds of EG (VI. 9. Evc.), and take
iB, ‘join 1H.

Then, because EH is parallel and equal to DI, IH is
parallel and equal to DE (I. 38. Euc.).

Upon I as a centre, through H describe an are of a circle
HK, intersecting the cycloid curve at K, join IK and draw
DL parallel to IK, and intersecting the circle AFB, at L join
LK. ‘Then since DL is equal and parallel to IK, LK is equal
to DI, is equal to EH, is equal to two-thirds of EG. But
EG is equal to the arc AE, and LK is equal to the are AL.
Therefore the are AL equals two-thirds of the are AE, which
is therefore trisected at L.

In the same way any angle may be divided into any other
number of equal parts.

Norr.—lIt is perhaps worthy of notice that the cycloid
curve affords a very near approximation to a true quadrature
of the circle. When the generating circle advances from the
point C at the extremity of the base through one-fourth of a
revolution, the generating pomt comes to M and the angle
CMO = 29° 43’, which is so near to 30° that the triangle
CMN is very nearly an equilateral triangle. On this supposi-

220 On the Multisection of an Angle, &c.

tion CN would be equal to twice the tangent of 30°, and
together with BN would be equal to AFB, the semicircum-
ference of the generating circle. But BC = DM + OC, and
FM = the,arc AF = } of the circumference, .. DF + OC = 2
of the circumference, ... BN = 2DF= the axis BA. Thus,
on the supposition that the angle CMO = 80°, the base BC
would be equal to twice the radius, and twice the tangent of
30°, and would be equal to 3.15470 instead of 3.14159.

PROCEEDINGS.

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PROCEEDINGS.

ANNIVERSARY MEETING OF THE Royat Society or Victoria,
HELD IN THE Socrety’s Hatt, Vicror1A STREET, MELBOURNE.

6th March, 1860.

The President, Dr. Ferdinand Mueller, in the chair.

The minutes of the previous Special Meeting were read and
confirmed.

The business of this meeting was to elect the office bearers for the
ensuing year, and the Chairman read the names of the candidates
for the various offices.

Mr. Morrison (Scotch College) moved—* That the attendance list
of the Council should be read; and as it had not been printed, that
the number of attendances of each member of Council should be
placed on the black board.” This was seconded by Mr. Clarson.

The Rev. C. P. M. Bardon moved, as an amendment, the previous
question, which was seconded by Mr. Farewell. The original
motion was carried.

The Rev. Mr. Higginson moved—* That this meeting requests the
Council, previous to future anniversary meetings, to prepare and
have printed for the use of members balloting lists, containing the
names of all candidates, with the names of their proposers and
seconders, Also, the number of Council meetings held during the
previous year ; and the number of attendances of each member of
Council.”

This was seconded and carried.

Dr. Macadam moved—* That His Excellency Sir Henry Barkly,
K.C.B., &e., &e., be elected President of the Royal Society of
Victoria, during its inaugural year.”

This was seconded by Dr. Becker.

Professor Irving withdrew the name of Professor Wilson, who had
been nominated, and it was announced that the Hon. Dr. Wilkie,
M.L.C., had refused to permit himself to be nominated under the
circumstances.

His Excelleney was then elected President for 1860, unanimously
and by acclamation.

a 9

~

Iv Proceedings, &¢.

The following gentlemen were nominated as candidates for the
office of Vice-President :—

Richard Eades, Esq., M.D., proposed by Dr. Macadam.
Professor Irving, proposed by Dr. Macadam.

A. R. C. Selwyn, Esq., proposed by Professor Irving.
Dr. Macadam, proposed by Rev. J. I. Bleasdale.
Professor Neumayer, proposed by Mr. Acheson.

C. W. Ligar, Esq., proposed by Hon. Dr. Wilkie.

Professor Irving and Dr. Macadam requested permission to with-
draw their names.
The result of the ballot was—

Dr. Eades A uals choy we
Professor Neumayer . ae moe ine WHA
CW. Ligar, Hisq,. ... ee Bae iil
A. R. C. Selwyn, Esq. is Rens

The two first were declared duly elected.

The following gentlemen were nominated for the office of Treasurer,
viz. :—
Professor Irving, who declined the office.
Rev. J. I. Bleasdale, proposed by Professor Irving.
Dr. Mackenna, proposed by Mr. Acheson.
H. F. Eaton, Esq., proposed by Dr. Macadam.
The Rev. Mr. Bleasdale was declared duly elected, the numbers
being—

Rev. J. I. Bleasdale ... at ik ae) eel
H. F. Eaton, Esq. ... ie» Se
Dr. Mackenna he i ne i!

Professor Irving and Dr. Macadam were nominated for the office
of Secretary. The former by Rev. J. I. Bleasdale, and the latter for
re-election, by Mr. Acheson. The votes were—

Dr. Macadam aoe r. pe id 31
Professor Irving sue we Pes aah LD)

The former was then declared duly elected.

Nineteen gentlemen were nominated for the six vacancies in the
Council. The following were elected :—

Dr. Mueller os be: af 5 3p
Professor Irving ae Je APL)
J. W. Osborne, Esq. ... se Bh hae 6
Hon. Dr. Wilkie... re Ae bs
Dr. Lffla ae at ¥, ee
Professor M‘Coy __... or eae

The Society then separated.
Signed, Henry BARKLY.

Proceedings, &c. Vv

ORDINARY MEETING oF THE RoyYAL Soctery.
Monday, 23rd April, 1860.
His Excellency Sir Henry Barkly, K.C.B., President, in the chair.

The minutes of the anniversary meeting were read and confirmed.

The Secretary read the names of eighteen gentlemen as candidates
for ordinary membership, to be ballotted for at the next ordinary
meeting.

The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of
the society. Drs. Eades and Mueller acted as scrutineers :—

Thomas Shearman Ralph, Esq., M.R.C.S.L., Associate of the
Linnean Society of London.

George Millar, Esq., Rokeby Hall, Collingwood.

Jonathan B. Were, Esq., Danish Consul, Melbourne.

Angus M‘Millan, Esq., M.L.A.

Eugene Von Guerard, Esq., artist, Melbourne.

Alfred Scurry, Esq., Melbourne.

Alexander Russell, Esq., M.L.A., surgeon.

The following gentlemen were candidates for the vacancy in the
Council, caused by the election of Professor Neumayer to the office
of Vice-President, viz :—

James Smith, Esq., “Punch” Office
Frederick Acheson, Esq., C.E.
Martin Gardiner, Esq., C.E.

Rev. Henry Higginson

R. L. J. Ellery, Esq. a Ay
H. F. Eaton, Esq. ... e ;

On proceeding to the ballot, H. F. Eaton, Esq., was declared duly
elected. Drs. Mueller and Eades officiated as scrutineers of the
ballot. The number of votes obtained by each, opposite to their
names. Tet

The Secretary laid upon the table the following contributions :—
“Fiji and the Fijians”—-by the Rev. Thomas Williams, presented
by the author. “ Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Tasmania, Vol. III, part IL, for 1859,” and “ Report of the
Royal Society of Tasmania, for 1858”—presented by the So-
ciety. “The Hobarton Directory’—by Hugh Munro Hull, Esq.
“The Royal Kalendar and Guide to Tasmania, for 1860 ”—by
Hugh Munyo Hull, Esq., F.R.S.T. and M.P.I. of South Australia,
—presented by the Author. Part IIT, No. 59, of XV. of the
“Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London”—pre-
sented by the Society. Part I., Vol. X., of the “Transactions of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society”—presented by the Society. “Dog
Fish and Globe Fish, Hobson’s Bay ; Small Bat, Cape Shank ;

DEO Sb

v1 Proceedings, &c.

Spider Crab, St. Kilda” —presented by Thomas E. Rawlinson, Esq.,
C.E. No. XI. of “ Fragmenta Phytographiz Australis ”—presented
by the author, Dr. Mueller. Part III., Vol. V. of the “Transactions
of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts”—presented by the Society.
850 copies of the “Report upon the Resources of the Colony, by
the Royal Society of Victoria”—presented by the Government.
“Parcel of Cocoa Leaves”—presented by Charles Ledger, Esq.
“Map of the Leichhardt and Port Curtis districts, mounted upon
myall wood; also, specimen of Tomahawk Handle, made from the
Bricklow Acacia”—presented by W. Lockhart Morton, Esq. (the
compiler).

Dr. Mueller, as Chairman of the “Resource Committee,” brought
up the report of that Committee upon the Resources of the Colony,
which was unanimously adopted.

Frederick Acheson, Esq. C.E., read a paper, entitled —“ On a
New System of Ventilation.” A long discussion ensued, in which a
number of the members took part. It being late, the further con-
sideration of the paper was postponed until the next ordinary
meeting.

Mr. Martin Gardiner’s paper was also postponed.

The Society then separated.
Signed, Henry Barkty.

ORDINARY MEETING OF THE RoyAL Society OF VICTORIA,
Monday, 14th May, 1860.

His Excellency Sir Henry Barkly, K.C.B., President, in the chair.

The minutes of the previous ordinary meeting were read and con-
firmed, and members present for the first time were introduced to the
Society by the President.

The Secretary read the name of one gentleman as a candidate for
honorary membership, and the names of four gentlemen as candidates
for ordinary membership, to be ballotted for at the ensuing ordinary
meeting.

The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of
the Society, Drs. Mueller and Eades acting as scrutineers of the
ballot :—

William Fairfax, Esq., Printer and Publisher, Collins-street east.

Thomas Embling, Esq., M.L.A., Surgeon, Gore-street, Colling-
wood.

Joseph Reed, Esq., Architect, Elizabeth-street.

S. H. Marsh, Esq., Professor of Music, Messrs. Baillie and Co.,
49 Collins-street west.

Proceedings, &c. Vii

Ramsay Thomson, Esq., C.E., Melbourne.

William Thomson, Esq., C.E., Melbourne.

C. J. Hodgson, Esq., Metallurgist, Melbourne.

The Rev. Thomas Williams, late Missionary in Fiji.

Archibald Michie, Esq., M.L.A.

The Hon. J. D. Wood, M.L.A., Attorney-General.

H. M. Wright, Esq., Barrister, 72 Chancery-lane.

Thomas Loader, Esq., M.L.A.

The Hon. William Nicholson, M.L.A., Chief Secretary.

J. Proeschel, Esq., Map Compiler, Carrington-street, Colling-
wood,

C. G. Robertson, Esq., Clerk, Registrar-General’s Office.

J. J. Feldheim, Esq., Merchant, Queen-street.

R. Bowie, Esq., Surgeon-Superintendent, Yarra Bend.

Henry H. Hayter, Esq., Registrar-General’s Office.

The following contributions were Jaid upon the table :—Maps I.
to IV. of the “Geological Survey of Victoria”—presented by the
Government Geologist. “ Australian Essays’—by James Norton,
Esq., Sen., M.L.C., of New South Wales, presented by the author,
through Hugh Chambers, Esq. Vol. XV., Part IV., of the “Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society of London ”—presented by the So-
ciety. Vol. XXIII, Part L, of the “Journal of the Statistical Society
of London ”—by the Society. Nos. 9, 10, and 11 “ Mining Sur-
veyors’ Reports ”—by the Board of Science. Eighth Annual Report
of the Committee of Management of the Geelong Infirmary and
Benevolent Asylum for 1859.” No. 16, Vol. II., of the Standard—
by the Editors. Three Mineralogical Specimens—presented by W.
E. Stanbridge, Esq., per favor of Dr. Mackenna.

The Secretary read a communication from the principal Librarian
of the Cambridge University Library, acknowledging the receipt of
Vol. ILI. of the “Transactions,” and desiring a continuation of the
future volumes. The “Transactions” from the commencement were
ordered to be transmitted.

The discussion on Mr. Acheson’s paper on “ Ventilation ” was re-
sumed by Mr. Knight, Drs. Mackenna and Macadam, Professor
M‘Coy, the Rev. Mr. Jarrett, Messrs. Millar and Osborne, and
several other members. Mr. Knight also described the “method”
adopted by him in ventilating the Houses of Parliament and
promised a paper on the same subject on some future occasion.

Mr. Gardiner’s paper was postponed until the ensuing meeting,

Professor M‘Coy exhibited specimens of “ Aluminium,” and the
substances by means from which it is prepared, and also gave a
description of the latest method of obtaining the metal from the
mineral “ Cryolyte.”

The Society then separated.

Signed, Freprerick McCoy, Chairman.

vill Proceedings, &c.

ORDINARY MEETING oF THE RoyAL Society OF VICTORIA. —
Monday, 4th June, 1860.

Professor McCoy in the chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed,
and several members present for the first time were introduced
to the Society by the Chairman.

The Secretary read the names of eight gentlemen as candidates for
ordinary membership.

Edward Wilson, Esq., was elected an honorary member of the
Society, and the following four gentiemen as ordinary members :—

Matthew Combe, Esq., L.L.D., Temple Court.

James Stewart Johnston, Esq., M.L.A., St. Kilda.

Thomas Reed, Esq., Collins-street east.

The Rev. Mr. Dale, Vice-President of St. Patrick’s College.

The following contributions were laid upon the table :—No. 12 of
the “ Fragmenta”— presented by the author, Dr. Mueller. Part XII. of
the Mining Surveyors’ Reports—presented by the Board of Science.

His Excellency the Governor arrived at this stage of the proceed-
ings, and took the chair, which was vacated by Professor McCoy.

A discussion ensued concerning “ Sections,’ in which several
members took part and Mr. Rawlinson moved “That on the re-
quisition of two (2) members the council declare the section to be
formed. This was seconded by Professor Irving. Dr. Macadam
moved as an amendment, “That on the requisition of ten (10)
members the council declare the section to be formed, and that five
(5) of these members form a quorum. This was seconded by A. K.
Smith, Esq., C.E., and carried.

The Secretary intimated that copies of His Excellency the Gover-
nor’s “Inaugural Address” as President for 1860, were ready for
distribution amongst the members.

Martin Gardiner, Esq., C.E., read a paper entitled “ Analogous
Solution to the Section of Ratio,” “Section of Space,” and “Deter-
minate Section” of Apollonius, with their generating problem, &e.

J. G. Knight, Esq., architect, offered some suggestions in favor of
holding an “ Australian Exhibition” in the course of the ensuing
year, in anticipation of the exhibition proposed to be held in London,
in 1862. A discussion ensued, and a requisition desiring the council
to call a special meeting upon the subject was signed by a number
of the members present.

E. G. Fitzgibbon, Esq., exhibited specimens obtained from two
masses of malleable iron, lying in the vicinity of Cranbourne, Western
Port district, as also a moiety of a third, but much smaller mass,
found in the same locality. He said that the existence of these
deposits had been known for several years, and that a specimen from

Proceedings, &c, ix

one of them, in the shape of a neatly wrought and polished horse
shoe, had been placed in the exhibition held in Melbourne in 1854,
anticipatory of the French international exhibition of the following
year, and which specimen he now produced. His attention had been
called to the subject whilst acting as a delegate of the City of Mel-
bourne in a conference respecting the desirability of constructing a
railway from Melbourne to the reputed coal-fields of Cape Patterson.
Portions of these metallic masses had been brought up by Mr. Ca-
meron, a resident at Cranbourne, a district through which the railway,
if constructed, would pass, and who believed the deposits in question
to be portion of a series of stratum extending through the locality
for a distance of some five miles, in sufficient quantity to constitute
one of the commercial inducements to the formation of a railway.

To satisfy himself on this point the exhibitor had visited Cran-
bourne, and found that whilst the outlying rocks of the district were
ferruginous, the deposits of apparently pure iron existing there, to
some extent i situ, were only two :—

lst. A mass lying on the land of a Mr. McKay, on Section 39,
parish of Sherwood, distant about three and a half miles in a south-
erly direction from the township of Cranbourne. It presents a tabular
face nearly level with the surface of the land, and somewhat of a
triangular shape, the edges measuring respectively about 31, 33, and
38inches. A trench excavated around it has revealed its sides to
an average depth of about 30 inches, the bulk of the mass becoming
greater as the depth increases, inducing a belief that the weight of
the portion visible amounts to about four tons. The upper surface
is studded with apparently oxidised blisters, which are easily de-
tached in scales, and which in some instances contain a non-magnetic
metallic substance approaching to the character of black lead. The
sides are thickly oxidised, the coat being in some places nearly half
an inch in thickness, and mixed with the contiguous earth with which
it is found in close adhesion.

2nd. A mass similarly bedded in land belonging to a Mr. Lane-
ham, section 39, parish of Cranbourne, distant about two miles east-
ward from the township, and about four miles north-eastward from
the mass just described, similar to it in its general characteristics,
but apparently not more than one half of its bulk.

He had also obtained, and now exhibited, a portion of a third and
very much smaller deposit of a similar description, which had been
found in the same neighbourhood, and which weighed about twelve
or fifteen pounds. The portion exhibited formed about one-half of the
mass, but was not in its normal state; the block had been used for
some years as an andiron on the hearth of a farm-house, and had its
surface affected by the action of the fire, and to some extent impreg-
nated with foreign substances. Whilst so used it had got broken
into nearly equal parts—that now produced, and another which had
been lost,

x Proceedings, &€.

He had had the honor of showing these specimens to his Excel-
lency the President of this Society, who had expressed a wish that the
Society’s attention should be drawn to them ;. this suggestion he now
acted upon with a view of inducing inquiry and experiment for the
purpose of deciding whether the deposits are native iron, and bear
affinity to the local formation, or whether they are of meteoric origin,
which appears more probable from their general resemblance to zrolites
known to have fallen in other parts of the world, and which have
been carefully analysed and described.

Professor McCoy exhibited some specimens of European meteoric
iron, and also brought forward a new specimen of “ Tzeniopteris ”
from the coal works of the Bass River, in support of the oolitic age
of certain Victorian coal strata. Professor McCoy exhibited some
fragments of rock from the Bass River, collected by Mr. Daintree, of
the Geological Survey, in which portions of the frond of a fossil fern
appeared, which Professor McCoy showed to belong to the genus
“Tzeniopteris.” The characters of the genus were drawn attention
to in the fossil, particularly the ‘strong mid-rib, with some simple and
some forked secondary nerves perpendicular to it. The species was said
most nearly to resemble the “'Tzeniopteris Vittato,” of Brongniart,
figured from the Whitty Oolites, in Phillips’ Geology of Yorkshire,
plate 8, fig. 5, and their respective differences were illustrated by
sketches on the black board. The new species was named. 7’. Dain-
treet. Professor McCoy mentioned that the Rev. Mr. Clarke, of
Sydney, who differed with him in the opinion that the coal beds of
Australia were of mesozoic age, had pointedly said when they last
met that no “ Tzeniopteris ” had heen found in the Australian beds,
which might be expected if Professor McCoy’s views were correct,
and now he had the pleasure of bringing the first recorded Australian
occurrence of the genus before the Royal Society, in support of the
oolitic age of the Cape Paterson Coal Beds. A discussion ensued
concerning the above interesting specimens, in which Mr. Fitz-
gibbon, Professor McCoy, Mr. Selwyn, Mr. Osborne, and other
members took part.

Copies of His Excellency the Governor’s “ Inaugural Address,” as
President for 1860, were distributed to the members present.

The Society then separated.

Signed, Henry Barkzy, Chairman.

Orpinary Meerrine oF THE Roya Society or VICTORIA.
Monday, 25th June, 1860.

His Excellency Sir Henry Barkly, K.C.B., in the chair.
The minutes of the former meeting were read and confirmed, and

u

Proceedings, &¢. Xl

several members present for the first time were introduced to the
Society by the President.

The Secretary read the names of two gentlemen as candidates for
ordinary membership, to be ballotted for at the ensuing meeting.

The following gentlemen were ballotted for as ordinary members of
the Society, Messrs. Eades and Irving acting as scrutineers of the
ballot :—

Charles Mayes, Esq., C.E., Government Railway Department.
S. Rentsch, Esq., Swiss Consul.

The Hon. J. F. Martley, Esq., M.L.A., Solicitor-General.
Professor Charles Damm, Principal, German College.

John Hadden, Esq., M.D., Collingwood.

John Menzies, Esq., Teacher, Model Schools.

John Walker, Esq., Architect, Queen-street and Royal-terrace.
George Gordon McCrae, Esq., No. 3 Caspar-place, Richmond.

The following contributions were laid upon the table by the Se-
cretary :—No. 12 of the Mining Surveyors’ Reports, April, 1860—by
the Board of Science. Geological Map of Hesse Darmstadt and parts
of the surrounding countries—by Lieutenant Colonel Frederick
Becker, Chief of the General Staff, from surveys made by him. Also
a pamphlet entitled “ Geognostische Skizze des Grossherzogthums
Hessen.” Three masses of quartz from Doctor’s Creek, Pleasant
Creek—by Messrs. E. and W. Grant.

Dr. Macadam intimated that Part II. of Vol. IV. was ready for
distribution among the members. He called attention to the fact
that the Transactions would in future appedr as the Transactions of
the Royal Society of Victoria.

Professor McCoy made a few remarks on the fossil-like marking
on the masses of quartz, stating that they were not vegetable im-
pressions, but merely jettings of mineral matter.

Sir Henry Barkly requested the Secretary to read a communication
from the Rev. W. B. Clarke on Professor McCoy’s new Zeniopteris,
from the coal-bearing rocks of the Cape Paterson district in particular,
and on the evidence bearing on the question of the age of Australian
coal beds in general, after which Professor McCoy read a Commentary
on the same,

A discussion ensued, in which Sir Henry Barkly, Mr. Selwyn, and
other members took part.

The Hon. Dr. Wilkie read a paper entitled “ On the Quadrature
of the Circle ;” a discussion ensued, in which His Excellency, the
author of the paper, and Professor Irving took part.

The Hon. John O’Shanassy, M.L.A., made some remarks on a
sample of cotton from Queensland, which he laid on the table. He
stated that the sample was grown in the vicinity of Moreton Bay, in
the Botanical Gardens of Brisbane, that the average yield was about
356 Ibs. to the acre, and that it was valued at about two shillings per

xi Proceedings, &c.

lb. The cotton was exhibited under microscopes by the Rev. J. I.
Bleasdale and Dr. Ralph.

The Rev. William Jarrett gave notice of his intention to move at
the next meeting “That the council be requested to reprint the first
volume of the Transactions of the Philosophical Institute of Vic-
toria,” so as to complete the sets of Members, as also a detailed index
of the contents of the four volumes.

(Signed) RicHarD Haves, Chairman,

ORDINARY MEETING OF THE ROYAL SocIETY OF VICTORIA.

Monday, 16th July, 1860.

Dr. Eades, Vice-President, in the chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed, and
several members present, for the first time, were introduced to the
meeting by the Vice-President.

The following gentlemen were ballotted for as ordinary members of
Society, Messrs. Eaton and Irving acting as scrutineers, and duly
elected :—

Hon. Charles Vaughan, M.L.C., Fitzroy.
George Lewis, Esq, Pharmaceutical Chemist and Druggist,
Collins-street:

The Secretary, Dr. Macadam, laid the following contributions on
the table:—No. XIII. of the Mining Surveyors’ Reports, May,
1860—by the Board of Science. Contributions to Vital Statistics,
by F. G. P. Neilson, Esq., F.L.S.—presented by W. H. Archer, Esq.,
Registrar-General, Melbourne. Dr. Macadam read a letter from the
Duke of Newcastle in reply to the letter of thanks from this Society,
in acknowledgment of her Majesty’s gracious kindness in conferring
on this Society its new and distinguishing title of “Royal Society.”

The Rev. W. Jarrett moved-—“That the First Volume of the
Transactions of the Philosophical Institute, together with a detailed
Index of the four volumes, be printed. Seconded by W. H. Archer,
Esq.—Carried.

The Hon. Secretary also read a letter from Professor Von Hardinge,
K.M.T., Director-General of the Geological Survey of Austria, and
President of the Imperial Royal Geological Institute of Austria, con-
taining a diploma transmitted to Dr. Macadam, as Honorary Se-
cretary of the Society, conferring upon him the title of Corresponding
Member of the Institute. He stated that he did not consider the
diploma as a personal distinction conferred upon him, or that he was
entitled to such a distinction. He looked upon it as a tribute to the

Proceedings, &c. xiii

Society made through him as the Secretary. It would be in the
recollection of members that at one of their meetings, during the
session of 1849, the President of the Imperial Royal Institute of
Austria was elected an honorary member of the Philosophical Insti-
tute of Victoria, and he supposed the present honour might have been
conferred upon him in acknowledgment of that circumstance. He
hoped the Society would receive the honor in that spirit, as in that
spirit he laid it on the table. The Vice-President said he was gratified
to find that the Royal Society of Victoria was becoming known and
recognised in Europe, and he congratulated his friend, the Hon.
Secretary, on the diploma he had received.

Francis A. Corbett, Esq., read a paper on Statistics, entitled —“ On
the Conjugal Condition of the People of Victoria, considered in
relation to the Laws of Divorce.” No discussion followed.

Sizar Elliott, Esq., read a paper on certain modifications of useful
tools, as supplied by English and American manufacturers. He
pointed out in detail the difference between several farming imple-
ments, suchas spades, shovels, dungforks, axes, &c., and commented on
the superior finish of the American compared with the British goods.
He then called attention to certain carpenters’ tools, such as chisels,
augurs, hammers, &c., &c., and stated the particulars in which they
were to be regarded as superior to the British goods. He next intro-
duced some enamel-ware, which he stated was solely supplied by
Great Britain, and he pointed out the gradual improvements that had
been made until they reached their present perfection. Mr. Elliot
concluded by apologising for bringing a subject before the Society
that might seem to be more suitable for a Mechanics’ Institute, and
stated that his object was to induce British manufacturers to pay
more attention to the finish of their goods, or they would be very
liable to be superseded in this market. W. Wade, Esq., of Kew, took
exception to several of Mr. Elliott’s remarks, and stated his experi-
ence had led him to prefer the British manufactured goods—although
in some cases they might be less sightly, they were more durable and
usefuJ. In illustration of these views he instanced some farm imple-
ments he had purchased, of American make, and which proved to be
very inferior to the British. He stated that his men had so great a
preference for British goods, that they would rather purchase their
own tools than use those supplied to them, if they were American.
Dr. Becker made a few remarks on the same subject, and after a short
reply from Mr. Elliott, the discussion closed.

Dr. Macadam called the attention of members to sorne samples of
iron manufactured by Messrs. Cairns and Co., of the rolling mills,
Dudley-street, out of scrap iron, which had been forwarded for in-
spection by Thomas Loader, Esq., as he was anxious to draw atten-
tion to the matter as one of interest to the colony, these mills being
the first of the kind in it.

(Signed) NeruMAYER, Chairman.

XIV Proceedings, &c.

ORDINARY MEETING oF THE Roya Society oF VICTORIA.
August 6th, 1860.

Professor Neumayer (Vice-President) in the Chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.

Letters were read from Dr. Mueller, the President, and Mr.
Ellery (Government Astronomer), excusing their absence on account
of illness.

The following contributions were laid on the table :—No. XIV. of
the “Mining Surveyors’ Reports for June” —by Henri J. Hart, Esq.
“Results of the Magnetical, Nautical, and Meteorological Observa-
tions made and collected at the Flagstaff Observatory, Melbourne”
—by Professor Neumayer. “Cabinet d’Antiquities Americaines a
Copenhague.” ‘The Northmen in Iceland”—by the Royal So-
ciety of Northern Antiquaries, through J. B. Were, Esq., Danish
Consul. Leg-bones of the Moa Bird, found in New Zealand—by
Captain Thomas Robertson. Specimens of Iron manufactured from
Scrap Iron, at the Rolling Mills, Spencer-street, Melbourne—by
Thomas Loader, Esq. No. XIII. of the “ Fragmenta Phytographize
Australiz”—by Dr. Mueller.

Papers that were to have been read by the following gentlemen:
—R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., F.R.A.S. (Government Astronomer), Arthur
Dobree, Esq., J. Pittman, Esq., and W. Lockhart Morton, Esgq.,.
were postponed to the ensuing meeting.

The Chairman suggested that a communication from the Hon.
Secretary shonld be sent to the widow of the late Hon. Major Hodgson,
expressive of the sympathy of the Society with her in her bereave-
ment. A Lithographed Portrait of the deceased gentleman was pre-
sented by the Secretary, Dr. Macadam.

Mr. J. G. Knight moved his resolutions on the subject of holding
an Australian Exhibition in the ensuing year, and was supported by
the Rev. J. I. Bleasdale, Dr. Macadam, and W. Lockhart Morton,
Esq. The gentlemen here named, together with Hon. J. H. Brooke,
M.L.A., Mr. E. G. Fitzgibbon, and Mr. A. K. Smith, were appointed
a deputation to wait upon the Chief Secretary, with a view to
ascertain what support the Government are willing to accord to their
undertaking.

An exquisite plaster model of a seal for the Society, designed by
Dr. Becker, and executed by Mr. Charles Sumner, of Collins-street,
was laid on the table, being a present from the Sculptor. It is
about four inches in diameter, is framed and glazed, and represents
Art and Science advancing to the invitation of Australia (in the
person of a nearly nude aboriginal), followed by Philosophy, and
distributing light and civilisation through the known, and, it is to be
hoped, unknown parts of this Continent.

The samples of Iron from the Spencer-street Rolling Mills were of

Proceedings, §¢. XV

a superior description, and the tenacity of the metal was evidenced
by the pieces being twisted into every variety of shape while perfectly
cold.

The Society then separated.

SpectaAL MEETING or THE Roya Socrery or VicTorta.
August 18th, 1860,
Richard Eades, Esq., V.P., &c., in the chair.
BUSINESS.

1. To receive W. Lockhart Morton, Esq.’s paper on the Geography
of the District lying between the Darling and the Lachlan.

2. To take leave of the Exploring Party.

Mr. Morton having been called upon to read his paper, proceeded
to do so, and, after the reading, C. W. Ligar, Esq., Surveyor-General,
moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Morton for his paper, and Sir W. F.
Stawell, Chief Justice and Chairman of the Committee, seconded the
motion, which was carried by acclamation.

Dr. Eades, as Chairman of the Meeting, Vice-President of the
Society, and Mayor of Melbourne, then called the members of the
Exploration party forward, and the following agreement was read and
signed, viz. :—

MEMORANDUM OF AGREEMENT made the eighteenth day of August,
in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty, be-
tween the Honorable David Elliott Wilkie, as Treasurer of the Ex-
ploration Committee of the Royal Society, Melbourne, of the one
part, and the several other persons whose names are hereto subscribed
of the other part ; the said persons, forming an Expedition about to
explore the interior of Australia under Robert O’Hara Burke, hereby
agree with the said David Elliott Wilkie faithfully to discharge
the special duties described opposite their respective names, and
also generally to perform whatever in the opinion of the said
Robert O'Hara Burke, as Leader, or, in the event of his death, in
the opinion of the Leader for the time being, may be necessary to
promote the success of the Expedition. And they hereby further
agree to place themselves unreservedly under the orders of the
Leader, recognising George James Landells as second, and William
John Wills as third, and their right of succession in the order thus
stated. In consideration of the above services being efficiently dis-
charged, the said David Elliott Wilkie, as Treasurer and on behalf
of the said Committee, hereby agrees to pay the said persons the
salaries at the respective rates set opposite their names, such salaries
to be paid by monthly instalments, not exceeding one half the amount
then due, on a certificate from the Leader that the services have been
efficiently performed up to the date, and the remainder on and rate-
ably up to the day of the return of the Expedition to Melbourne,

XV1 . Proceedings, Sc.

and no more. And each of the said persons hereby lastly agrees, on

failure on his part fully to perform *this agreement, that his salary

shall be forfeited, and that he shall abide all consequences, the power

of discharge resting with the Leader, and the power of dismissal |
and forfeiture of salary resting on the recommendation of the Leader

with the said David Elliott Wilkie, acting with the consent of the

said Committee ; in witness whereof the said parties have hereunto

set their hands the day and year above written.

At the rate
per annum of
1 George James Landells... £600 ... Charge of Camels.

2 William John Wills ... £300 ... As Surveyor and Astronomi-
cal Observer.

3 Dr. Herman Beckler ... £300 ... Medical Officer and Botanist.

4 Ludwig Becker ... £300 ... As Artist, Naturalist, and

; Geologist.

5 Charles D. Ferguson ... £200 ... Foreman.
6
7
8

Name. Special Duties.

Thos. F. McDonough ... £120 ... Assistant.

William Patten i Lolo: Do:

Patrick Langan * 20281208) .29; Do:
9 Owen Cowen M251 203 ede;
10 William Brahe 124 S120. 24De:
11 Robert Fletcher 2 L204 DO:
12 John King vee need 20 eas DOs
13 Henry Creber beso LAD? «.peddor
14 John Drakeford eee L2On. iDo;
15 eee 20 a8. alo:

Signed by all the above in the presence of
RopBert DIcKson.

JoHN Macapam, M.D., Hon. See.,
_Exploration Committee, Royal Society of Victoria.

Sir William F. Stawell, as Chairman of the Committee, briefly
addressed the men on the importance of the enterprise in which they
had embarked.

Dr. Eades, as Vice-President of the Society and Mayor of Mel-
bourne, bid the party God speed, and after a short speech, passed
round the party, shaking each man heartily by the hand and wishing
him a prosperous journey. ’

The Society then separated.

Orpinary Merrine or tar Royat Sociery or Victor.
Monday, 27th August, 1860.
His Excellency Sir Henry Barkly, K.C.B., &c., President, in the chair.
The minutes of the last ordinary meeting, held on the 6th August,

Proceedings, §¢. XVii

were read and confirmed, and several members present for the first
time were introduced to the members by the President.

The Secretary read the name of one gentleman as a candidate for
ordinary membership, and the following gentlemen were duly elected
by ballot ordinary members of the Society, viz. :—

James W. Fawcett, Esq., Melbourne

John Blair, Esq., Surgeon, M.R.C.8.L., Northcote

Dr. Coates, Surgeon, South Yarra

Dr. Henry Wooldridge, South Yarra

John Donaghy, Esq., St. Francis School

Michael John Page Hennify, Esq., Myrtle Cottage, Lennox-
street, Richmond

The Secretary read communications from the Leader of the Ex-
ploration Party, and from the Royal Society of London, the
Athenzeum, London, and from the Librarian, Trinity College, Dublin,
acknowledging the receipt of “‘ Transactions” from the Society.

The Secretary laid upon the table the following contributions,
viz.:—The “ Atlantis,” by the Editor. Several numbers of the
“Statistical Society of London.” ‘ Statistical Notes of the Progress
of Victoria from the Foundation of the Colony (1853-1860)”—by
William H. Archer, Esq., Registrar-General, 1 vol. ‘Report on
Central American Affairs,’ 3 vols. “Report on Finances, U.S.,”
2 vols. ‘Report on Commerce and Navigation,” 1 vol. “ Report of
Commissioners for Settlement of Claims,” 1 vol. ‘ Messages and
Documents of United States Government, 1854-5,” 1 vol. ‘ Cor-
respondence Relative to Perry’s Expedition to Japan,” 3 vols.
“ Reports of the Governors of Alms Houses of New York”—by
Henri J. Hart, Esq. “ A Treatise on Collisions at Sea”—by Captain
C. J. Perry, dedicated by permission to His Excellency Sir Henry
Barkly, K.C.B.

Dr. Macadam laid upon the table a specimen of native zinc, found
at Creswick.

R. L. J. Ellery, Esq.; Government Astronomer, read a paper
entitled, “On the Application of Galvanic Electricity and Practical
Astronomy.” The paper was illustrated by apparatus.

Arthur Dobree, Esq., read a paper entitled “On the Nidification
of the Coach-whip Bird (Psophodes Crepitans), and White-fronted
Epthianura (2pthianura Albifrons), with some general remarks on
interesting forms of Nidification of Australian Birds. The paper was
illustrated by numerous specimens of nests, eggs, &e.

Charles James C. Perry, Esq., Master Mariner, gave an oral de-
scription of his patent Anti-Collision Dial and Shipwreck Preventer,
illustrated by the dial itself.

The Secretary read a note from J. Pittman, Esq., withdrawing for
the present his paper entitled “ On a new application of Photogra-

b

XVil Proceedings, &c.

phic Art to assist Engravers in their operations, with remarks on the
various processes of Photo-Lithography.”
The Society then separated.
(Signed) RicHARD Eanes, Vice-President.

ORDINARY MEETING OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.
Monday, 17th Sept., 1860.

Richard Eades, Esq., M.D., Vice-President, in the Chair, in the un-
avoidable absence of His Excellency the President.

The minutes of the former meeting were read and confirmed, and
on the suggestion of the Chairman, the presentation of newly-elected
members to the meeting was postponed till another meeting, when
His Excellency the President could perform that duty.

The Hon. Secretary read the names of four gentlemen as candi-
dates for ordinary membership to be ballotted for at the ensuing
meeting :—

Dr. G. J. Kenwor thy, President of the Horticultural Society, Bal-
larat, &c., was elected by ballot an ordinary member.

The following contributions were laid upon the table, viz.:—
“Proceedings of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of
Madras”—presented by Dr. Muelltr. Nos. I. to VIII. inclusive of
the “ Victorian Farmers’ Journal”—by the publishers. Three snakes
(preserved in spirits of wine)—presented by Dr. Sommaur, Swan
Hill, transmitted by Dr. Ludwig Becker.

The Secretary read communications from the Exploring party, and
laid upon the table five sketches taken by Dr: Becker, during the
journey of the Expedition from Melbourne to Swan Hill.

The Secretary read a communication forwarded to the Society by
the private secretary of His Excellency the Governor, and enclosing
a circular from His Grace the Duke of Newcastle, requesting infor-
mation as to the materials collected and works published descriptive
of the Natural History of the Colony of Victoria.

On the standing orders being suspended, the following committee

was appointed to ‘draw up a report on the epice so entrusted to the
Society, viz :—

A. R. C. Selwyn, Esq., Government Geologist.
Rev. Julian Edmond Woods, Penola, 8. A.
Professor Neumayer, Government Meteorologist.
Wm. H. Archer, Esq., Registrar-General.

R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., Government Astronomer.
A. B. Orlebar, Esq. Inspector of National Schools.
Dr. F. Mueller, Government Botanist.

Dr. T. 8. Ralph,

Professor McCoy.

And Dr. McGillivray.

Proceedings, Sc. xix

On behalf of the Council the Secretary moved, in pursuance of
notice of motion, ‘ That a distinct section for Medical Science, in-
cluding physiology and pathology, be established, to be named section
H, and that section D be proceeded with as a microscopical section
exclusively.” This was carried.

The contingent notices of motion affecting Rule LIX, were then
carried, viz. :—Ist, That the words after section D on to section E
be struck out, and the following words substituted, viz :—‘ The
Microscope and its Applications.” 2nd, after “ Architecture” insert
the words “ Section H—Medical Science, including Physiology and
Pathology.”

The Society then resolved itself into a conversazione of the micro-
scopical section, and several members exhibited interesting objects
under their microscopes.

The members then separated.

(Signed) Ricuarp Eanes, Vice-President.

ORDINARY MEETING OF THE RoyAL Society oF VICTORIA.
. Monday, 8th October, 1860.
Richard Eades, Esq. M.D., in the Chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
The Hon. Secretary read the names of three gentlemen as candi-
dates for ordinary membership, to be ballotted for at the ensuing
ordinary meeting.
The Secretary read communications from the Exploring party, &e.
The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of
the Society, by ballot, viz. :—
William Crooke, Esq., M.R.C.S.
F. J. Maguire, Esq., Consul, United States of America.
William R. Pugh, Esq., M.D:, Collins-street.
J. 8. Woolcott, Esq., solicitor, Church-street, Richmond.

The Secretary laid on the table the following contributions :—

A cabinet of fossils, shells, &ec., a glass case of fossils, &c., several
small cases of curiosities, drawings, books, bottles, with specimens of
natural history, &c., being the contents of Mr. Becker’s museum—
presented by subscription. A list of foreign correspondents of the
Smithsonian Institution, Washington—presented by the Institution.
“ Clarke’s Southern Goldfields” —presented by the author, Rev. W.
B. Clarke, M.A. Complete sets of the “ Monatsbericht der Kénig-
lich Preuss. Akademie der Wissenchaften zu Berlin,’ from 1856 to
1859—presented by the Academy.

Dr. Coates read a paper entitled “On a Deposit of Fossil Dia-
tomacez at South Yarra ;” the paper was supplemented by verbal
observations by Dr. Ralph, who had been associated with Dr. Coates

“ b 2

XX Proceedings, &¢.

in conducting the researches alluded to in the paper read. The paper
was illustrated by drawings, executed under the Camera Lucida, by
Dr. Ralph, and numerous preparations of the objects obtained from
the deposit were also exhibited by means of the microscope.

W. Lockhart Morton, Esq., read a paper entitled “ Suggestions for
the Introduction of Animals and Agricultural Seeds.” :

W. Lockhart Morton, Esq., gave “notice of motion—“ That at the
next meeting of the Society a committee be appointed to take into
consideration and report upon the best means for procuring the in-
troduction of new animals and the importation of new agricultural
seeds into the colony.

(Signed) Henry Barkty, Chairman.

ORDINARY MEETING OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.
Monday, 29th October, 1860.

His Excellency Sir Henry Barkly, K.C.B., &c., &e., President, in
the chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed,
His Excellency introduced Mr. Charles Ledger to the Society, as the
introducer of the Alpaca to Australia. The Hon. Secretary read a
communication from Mr. Wills, of the Exploring party, accompany-
ing his observations determining the camps of the party. The Secre-
tary read the name of one gentleman as a candidate for ordinary
membership. The Hon. Secretary read a communication from His
Excellency, accompanying the letter from the (ele Under-Secre-
tary of State :—

“ Downing-street, August 3rd, 1860.

“ Srr,—The extreme want felt by the manufacturing interest
of Great Britain of raw materials for the production of textile
fabrics, has induced an application to the Committee of the General
Association for the Australian Colonies, for the purpose of discover-
ing the existence, if any, of some fibrous product in the Australian
Continent which might tend to remove the difficulty, and at the
same time prove a sufficiently valuable article of commerce to insure
its being successfully and profitably cultivated.

“ 2nd. In compliance with the request of a deputation of the Aus-
tralian Committee, who waited upon the Secretary of State, I have
to draw your attention to the great importance of this subject, and
to the probability of there being some fibrous grasses of a valuable
kind indigenous to the Colony under your Government.

“3rd. It would be very desirable that these grasses should be col-
lected, if possible by the Government botanist, and sent to England,
consigned to the Colonial Agent, for the purpose of having their
value tested in such a manner as may best secure the object in view.

“4th, In the event of its being found practicable to comply with

Proceedings, &c. Xxi

this application, Mr. Bazley, M.P., has offered to place the Committee
of the Australian Association in communication with several leading
manufacturers, who will gratuitously test the value of the several
consignments.
“T have, &e.,
(Signed) “ G. C. Lewis.”

His Excellency stated that he had already received a very valuable
report from Dr. Mueller, the Government Botanist, on the subject of
the fibrous productions of the Colony. He had no doubt Dr. Mueller
would be happy to lay a copy before the Society.

Dr. Macadam then gave notice that at the next meeting he would
move “That a Committee be appointed to carry out the object of
the communication, and to report on the grasses of the Colony.”

The Hon. Secretary then laid the following contributions on the
table :—Mining Surveyors’ Reports, No. 8, December, 1859, and No.
16, August, 1860, presented by the Board of Science ; Vol. XVL,
part IL, No. 52, for May, of the Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society, presented by the Society ; a segment of ball iron ore, pre-
sented by W. Lockhart Morton, Esq.

The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of
the Society :—

J.J. Blanche, Esq., schoolmaster, Tarraville.
Rey. Evan Macdonald, Kyneton.
Dr. M‘Millan, Kyneton.

W. Lockhart Morton, Esq., moved “That a Committee be ap-
pointed to inquire into and report upon the best means for procuring -
the introduction of new animals, and the importation of new agricul-
tural seeds into the Colony.”

Dr. Eades seconded the motion, which was carried, as was also the
following contingent motion—‘ That the following gentlemen be ap-
pointed members of the said Committee, with power to add to their
number :—

John Macadam, Esq., M.D.

Dr. Ferdinand Mueller.

Rey. John I. Bleasdale.
Frederick Acheson, Esq.

John Walter Osborne, Esq., and
The Mover.”

P. H. McGillivray, Esq., read a description of a new Australian
species of Plumatella, and at the conclusion of the meeting exhibited
the animal alive under the microscope.

Dr. Macadam, for Charles Wilhelmi, Esq., Assistant Government
Botanist, read a paper by that gentleman on the “ Manners and
Customs of the Australian Natives, in particular those residing in
the Port Lincoln District.”

XX11 Proceedings, &c.

At the request of Mr. Lockhart Morton, the reading of his paper
was postponed.
The Society then separated.
(Signed) RicHARD EADES, Vice-President.

ORDINARY MEETING OF THE RoYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.
Monday, November 19th, 1860.

Dr. Richard Eades, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed.
William Lyall, Esq., M.L.A., was duly elected an ordinary
member of the Society.
The Secretary laid on the table the following contributions, viz :—
“ Transactions of the Royal Society of Arts and Sciences of Mauritius”

—presented by the Society. ‘Der Meteorit von Braunau am 14.

Juli 1847 ;” “Bemerkungen iiber die Phyllopoden, nebst einer
Uebersicht ihrer Gattungen und Arten ;” ‘Ueber die Wiirmer-
Entwickelung in den Pflanzen, deren Gefrieren und die Schutzmittel
gegen dasselbe ;” “ Denkschrift zur Feier des 50jahrigen Bestehens
der Schlesischen Gesellschaft fiir vaterlandische Kultur ;” “ Ver-
zeiehniss simmtlicher Mitglieder der Schlesischen Gesellschaft fiir
vaterlindische Kultur ;” “ Bericht tiber die Thatigkeit der allgemeinen
naturwissenschaftlichen Section der Schlesischen Gesellschaft im
Jahre 1859 (2 copies);” “Das Erdbeben vom 15. Januar 1858,
mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung seiner Ausbreitung in der Provinz
Preussisch-Schlesien ;” “‘ Botaftische Mittheilungen ;” “ Actonien,
Echinodermen und Wiirmer des Adriatischen und Mittelmeers ;”
“ Grundziige der Schlesischen Klimatologie ;” “ Drei und dreissigster,
vier und dreissigster, fiinf und dreissigster und sechs und dreissigster
Jahres-Bericht der Schlesischen Gesellschaft fiir vaterlandische
Kultur—presented by Geh. Med. Rath Prof. Dr. H. R. Goppert
Part XIV. of the “Fragmenta Phytographize Australiz’”—by Dr.
Mueller.

Frederick Acheson, Esq., made some inquiries respecting the terms

_ on which Mr. Landells had been engaged by the Exploration Com-

mittee.

The Hon. Secretary replied by reading the correspondence that had
passed between Mr. Landells and the Committee on the subject.

Mr. Acheson considered the reply very satisfactory. Dr. Eades
made a few remarks expressing his approval of the course Mr. Burke
had pursued.

The Hon. Secretary read two short dispatches from the party.
Dr. Macadam moved “That a Committee be appointed to inquire
into the grasses of the colony,” the Committee to consist of Dr.
Mueller, Dr. Ralph, and W. Lockhart Morton, Esq. Rey. J. I.
Bleasdale seconded the motion, which was carried. - The bringing up

®

ol

Proceedings, §¢. XXIil

of the reports of Committees was postponed to that day fortnight
(Monday, December 3rd), to which day the present meeting was
adjourned.

W. Lockhart Morton, Esq., read a paper entitled “Proposals for
the formation of a new Colony in Northern Australia.”

The reatling of Mr. Wilhelmi’s paper was postponed to that day
fortnight.

The Society then separated.

(Signed) RicHARD Eaves, Vice President.

ORDINARY MEETING or THE Roya Sociery or VictTorta.
Monday, 10th December, 1860.
Dr. Richard Eades, Vice-President, in the chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

The Hon. Secretary read a letter from his Excellency the Presi-
dent, expressing his regret at not being able to be present.

The Secretary stated that he had received dispatches from Mr.
Becker, but as they did not contain any matter of special interest
that had not been already published, he would only read them, and
lay on the table the sketches he had received.

The Secretary laid on the table the following contributions, viz.,
“Journal of the Statistical Society of London,” Vol. XXIII., Part 3-—
by the Society. “Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.”
_ “Essays on the Plants collected by Mr. Eugene Fitzallan, during
Lieutenant Smith’s Expedition to the Estuary of the Burdekin”—
by Dr. Ferdinand Mueller.

Mr. Wilhelmi consented to the postponement of his paper.

The Hon. Secretary read a paper from the Rev. W. B. Clarke,
entitled “ Remarks on Professor McCoy’s Paper.”

Professor McCoy read a paper entitled “ Notes on the Rev. W.
B. Clarke’s Paper.”

Mr. Wilhelmi’s paper was laid on the table for the perusal of
members. |

The Secretary mentioned that notices for motions for the altera-
tion of laws would have to be given at this meeting, it being the last
of the year previous to the annual general meeting.

(Signed) Henry Barty, Chairman.

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING oF THE ROYAL Society OF VICTORIA.
December 17th, 1860.
His Excellency Sir Henry Barkly, President, in the chair.

The Honorary Secretary laid the following contributions on the
table, viz.:—“ Astronomical Observations made at the Observatory,
Sydney, in the Year 1859”—presented by W. Scott, Esq., M.A,

XX1V Proceedings, &€.

Astronomer for New South Wales. “No. 18 of the Mining
Surveyors’ Reports”—presented by the Government. A valuable
contribution had also been received too late to be duly announced in
the notice paper, viz. “A Catalogue of 3,735 Circumpolar Stars
observed at Red Hill in the Years 1854-5-6”—presented by R. C.
Carrington, Esq., Fellow and Secretary of the* Royal Asigonomical
Society of London. Accompanying the above, a letter was read
announcing the arrival of seven volumes of the Geological Institute of
Vienna. A letter was also read which had been received from the
Honorary Secretary of the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester, proposing a regular exchange of publications with the
Royal Society of Victoria. On the motion of the Honorary Secretary,
the proposal was unanimously agreed to.

W. Lockhart Morton, Esq., presented for examination some fibre
prepared from the flax grown at the Experimental Farm.

Francis A. Corbett, Esq., exhibited some specimens of a fibrous
plant, a species of mallow, which grows in great abundance on the
Darling ; he also showed some paper manufactured from the fibre.
He likewise exhibited specimens of a fibrous rush, a paper from
which had also been manufactured, and read a short paper on the
subject. ;

Dr. Coates read a paper entitled “Notes of some recent Micro-
scopical Researches Relating to Adulteration of Articles of Food.”

The Annual Report, and the Report on Prize Essays, were postponed
to Saturday, the 22nd inst., to be read at an adjourned meeting
then to be held.

The following alterations in the Laws were carried, viz. :—

Ist, Moved by F. Acheson, Esq.; seconded by Richard Hades,
Esq., M.B.V.P., &e., &e. :—

“That wherever: the words ‘ Philosophical Institute of Victoria’
occur, the words ‘Royal Society of Victoria’ be substituted, and
wherever the word ‘Institute’ occurs, the word ‘Society’ be sub-
stituted.” Carried.

2nd, Moved by J. W. Osborne, Esq. ; seconded by F. A. Corbett
Esq. -

“That the following addition be made to Rule XVII. :—That any
member of Council (the President excepted) absenting himself from
three (3) consecutive ordinary meetings of Council without having
obtained leave of absence from the Council, shall be considered to ~
have vacated his office, and the election of an officer to fill his place
shall be proceeded with at the next ordinary meeting of members, in
accordance with Law XIII.” Carried unanimously.

3rd, Dr. Gillbee moved, and Richard Eades, Esq., M.B.V.P., &., &e.,

seconded :—
“That at the first ordinary meeting, after the Anniversary Meeting

2

Proceedings, &c. XXV

in March, the newly-elected President shall read his inaugural address
at a conversazione, to be held in the hall of the Royal Society.”
After a short discussion, His Excellency the President suggested
that the object would be gained by substituting the words “ annual
conversazione” for the words “annual dinner,” in Law XI., and Law
XIII. to be altered intthe same manner.
This suggestion was adopted, and the motion carried unanimously.
Dr. Thomas Sharman Ralph, as Secretary of the Microscopic
Section D, reported that the first meeting would be held on Friday,
the 22d inst., at Eight o’clock p.m., in the hall of the Royal Society.
The meeting was then adjourned to Saturday, the 22nd inst., at
one o'clock, to receive the several reports.

ADJOURNED ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.
December 22nd, 1860.

Dr. Eades, Vice-President in the chair.
?
BUSINESS.

To consider and receive sundry reports.

The Auditor laid the Treasurer’s Report on the table, which was
adopted after a short discussion.

The reports of the Prize Essay judges were severally read by the
Hon. Secretary, and adopted.

The report of the Committee appointed to inquire into the Indi-
genous Fibrous Plants of the Colony was considered, and, after a
short discussion, adopted.

The Annual Report was read by the Hon. Secretary, and, after a con-
versational discussion, adopted. The Society then separated.

sve

Se Coe

ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1860.

€

In submitting the first Annual Report of your Society, since its de-
signation has been changed from that of the Philosophical Institute
of Victoria to that of the Royal Society of Victoria, it is the pleasing
duty of your Council to announce that during the past year fifty-six
new members havé been elected, of whom two were honorary and
fifty-four ordinary members.

The roll of membership, as furnished by your Treasurer, contains
one hundred and fifty-three paying members for the year 1860, not
including those whom it has been deemed desirable to retain on the
suspense list.

Your Treasurer’s Report shows a balance of only £10 9s. 4d.;
but, in laying this statement before you, it is important to bear in
mind the large amount of business transacted by the Society, and
the important interests that have been entrusted to its administration
as well as the increased size of the volume and the number of illus-
trations in your “Transactions,” the publication of which has cost
the sum of £264 9s, 3d., of which £53 9s. 9d. yet remains unpaid.

It is the duty of your Council to call the attention of members to
the importance of paying up their subscriptions at the commence-
ment of the year, and thereby place the Treasurer in funds to meet
the necessary expenditure for carrying on the business of the Society.
The very large number now on the suspense list have been placed
there most reluctantly, but the deficit in the funds was so considera-
ble, that your Council, at a meeting held December 12th, unani-
mously passed the following resolution :—

“ That the names of all members whose subscriptions are for 1860
unpaid (except those elected in 1860), and whose membership is
already forfeited, according to Rule XXV., be placed on a Suspense
List, and a notice sent to each, that if the subscriptions be not paid .
by the 31st day of the present month, their names shall be struck
from the roll of membership.”

XXvill Annual Report.

The Council sincerely trusts that it will not be necessary to resort
to so unpleasant a duty as erasing a single name from the list when
the members have been duly reminded of their neglect.

The Council has also to remind the Society that the funds have
not been supplemented during the past year with any aid from
Government, but there is reason to hope that a sum of £1000 to
£1500 will be placed on the estimates in aid of your operations
during next year. The importance and number of the duties
that were devolved on the Society during the past year, justify
the expectation that Government and the Legislature will
favourably entertain the application for the larger of the sums
mentioned.

The quantity of manuscript now in the hands of your Council for
publication, including the several reports of committees, will involve
an outlay fully equal to the expenditure of the last year for publish-
ing your “ Transactions.”

During the present session, besides the anniversary Meeting, two
special, one adjourned, and twelve ordinary meetings have been held.
At these meetings sixteen papers have been read, and several sub-
jects of much interest have been discussed. Of the papers, your
Council has selected fifteen for publication.

The Society now numbers among its correspondents one hundred
and thirteen (113) kindred societies, and several eminent scientific
and literary gentlemen in Europe, America, and other parts of the
globe.

The public business entrusted to the Society by the Government
during the year has been of more than usual importance. arly in
the session the Society was requested to administer the funds sub-
scribed for the Exploration of the Interior, and to superintend the
expenditure of the sum voted by the Legislature for that purpose.
The discharge of these trusts has not only involved great responsi-
bility, but some expense and much anxiety. The greater number of
the members of the Committee being also active members of the
Society, the time required by the frequent meetings has been no in-
considerable tax on the several members. These labors and sacri-
fices have, however, been cheerfully borne, and the various duties they
entailed have been zealously performed. It is therefore with great
satisfaction your Council congratulates the Society on the success
that has hitherto attended the efforts made to secure the objects of
the Exploring Expedition.

The Society has also had confided to it a series of queries, involv-
ing matters of scientific interest and economic importance, relating
to the Natural History of the British Colonies. These queries have
been responded to by several gentlemen, members of your Society,
_ appointed for that purpose, in a manner that displays much care,
and it is confidently expected they will prove of great value in pro-
moting the objects contemplated by the Imperial Government.

Annual Report. XX1X

Your Council had likewise committed to it the distribution of the
sum of six hundred pounds (£600) voted by the Legislature for
“Prize Essays,’ and the reports now given in by the Judges
appointed by your Council, and approved by the Government, will
demonstrate the care and diligence with which that delicate and
onerous duty has been performed.

The Society has further been requested to furnish a report, for the
Imperial Government, “On the Fibrous Products of the Colony
capable of being made useful for Textile Fabrics.” In reply to
which a valuble report has been furnished, and laid on your table
at the last meeting.

The Microscopical Section (D), and the Chemical Section (B),
have been declared established, and a temporary convener appointed
to officiate during the recess, until the formal appointment of the
usual officers in March, in accordance with Law LXIV.

Your Council has had under consideration the subject of an Indus-

trial Exhibition during 186i, in anticipation of the one to be held
in the British Metropolis, in 1862. And, with a view to the accom-
plishment of this object, a deputation, consisting of Dr. Eades and
Dr. Macadam, waited on the late Chief Secretary to urge the impor-
tance of the subject, and the sum of £6000 was promised to be placed
on the estimates for that purpose. The recent political changes have
interrupted the completion of these arrangements, but there can be
no doubt so important an object will not be overlooked by the pre-
sent Government, and, in the event of such arrangements being com-
pleted, your Council will be fully prepared to carry out the business
with promptitude and diligence, if entrusted with the details.
_ It must be obvious that so. great a variety of laborious duties have
not been completed without much valuable time having been occu-
pied, as well as anxious thought bestowed on the several subjects
reqiiring investigation and administration. And, in concluding this
report, your Council would call especial attention to the want of com-
mittee rooms. ‘This deficiency has been a serious inconvenience dur-
ing the past year, and, in some instances, has impeded the progress of
business. It is therefore.on public grounds that the assistance of the
Legislature and Government is sought to provide the requisite accom-
modation for conducting inquiries and furnishing such information of
matters of interest to the general welfare of the empire as may be
required by the Imperial or Colonial Governments. These rooms will
also serve to accommodate the Sections, as by mutual arrangement
they can be made available for different meetings on the several days
of the week.

The claims of your Society might also be urged on the ground of
public economy, as, by the duties gratuitously undertaken from time
to time by the various committees, much valuable public time is
saved and the public service advanced. Besides, the advantage to
the colony at large as well as the Government of having a public

XXX Annual Report.

body unfettered by party ties and unaffected by political changes, to
which questions of social interest may be referred for investigation,
must be obvious to every intelligent member of the community, and
hence the importance of maintaining such a body in a state of
efficiency for prosecuting its important and interesting labors.

In closing the session of 1860, your Council looks back with
pleasure to the unbroken harmony that has characterised all its pro-
ceedings, and reflects with much gratification on the results of the
year, so far as relates to the steady progress of your Society in use-
fulness and efficiency. The one drawback to unmixed satisfaction
it is deemed necessary to notice is the low state of your funds, but
it may surely be hoped that it is only necessary to make this fact
public, and the needful supplies will be at once furnished, so as to
enable the Society to not only occupy the spheres of usefulness it
has already filled, but to extend its operations into others of even
greater importance to the material interests of the community, which
are daily opening before us and inviting our co-operation.

The following gentlemen retire from office, but are eligible for
re-election :—The President, His Excellency Sir Henry Barkly,
K.C.B. ; the Vice-Presidents, Dr. Eades and Professor Neumayer ;
the Treasurer, Rev. J. I. Bleasdale; the Honorary Secretary, Dr.
Macadam; C. W. Ligar, Esq., C.E.; Clement Hodgkinson, Esq.,
C.E.; John Millar, Esq., C-E., F.S.A.; Dr. Gillbee; Thomas E. Raw-
linson, Esq.; H. F. Eaton, Esq. .

, ee

XXX1

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REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.

PROGRESS REPORT OF EXPLORATION COMMITTEE.
DRAWN UP BY DRS, MUELLER, WILKIE, AND MACADAM,

In the Report presented by your Committee for 1859, you were
congratulated upon the successful accomplishment of the laborious
undertaking to raise the sum of £2000 by private subscription, in
order to secure the munificent donation of £1000, promised by an
anonymous donor, on that condition, for the purpose of organising a
party to explore the interior of Australia.

Your Committee also expressed a hope that the Legislature would
supplement these amounts with a vote of £6000. This sum was
promptly appropriated by Government and duly voted by the Legis-
lature, forthe purpose, and placed at the disposal of your Committee,
by the Hon. William Nicholson, Chief Secretary.

The importance of taking advantage of the winter season to pene-
trate the arid regions of the interior was not overlooked by your
Committee, but as a sum of £3000 had been forwarded by Govern-
ment to India, to purchase camels for this express object, it was
deemed, after careful consideration, to be better to await the arrival
of these “ships of the desert,” rather than hasten the departure of
the Expedition before they arrived. <A light party, to reconnoitre
the vicinity of Cooper’s Creek, was at one time seriously thought of,
but no advantage seemed likely to be gained by such a proceeding,
that would compensate for the large additional outlay it would
entail.

The camels, twenty-five in number, arrived in Hobson’s Bay June
25th, in good order and condition, under the care of Mr. George
James Landells, on board the “ Chinsurah,”’ Captain Gisborne, and
immediate arrangements were made to have them safely landed and
properly housed. Your Committee has gratefully to acknowledge
the ready co-operation of the Government in securing these impor-
tant objects.

Cc

XXX1V Reports of Committees.

The important duty of selecting a Leader for the Expedition was
the next and most anxious duty that devolved on your Committee.
The names of several highly eligible gentlemen were submitted for
consideration, but, after mature deliberation, it was resolved to an-
nounce that the appointment was open, and candidates were invited
to offer their services.

In reply to this invitation a number of gentlemen, of various qua-
lifications, presented their credentials, and sought the arduous but
honorable post. The difficulty your Committee experienced in
making a selection was increased by the number of apparently suitable
candidates that offered their services. After much anxious inquiry and
careful deliberation, your Committee selected Robert O’Hara Burke,
Esq., Swperintendent of Police in the Castlemaine district, and
formerly a cavalry officer in the Austrian service, whose appointment
to this onerous office was duly endorsed by the Government.

Your Committee, feeling strongly that it was of the first impor-
tance the Leader of so difficult an undertaking as traversing the
wilds of an unknown region should have the free and uncontrolled
selection of his officers and men, conceded to Mr. Burke at once the
entire management of the organization of his party. Accordingly
the whole number of applicants were invited to meet the leader at
the Hall of the Royal Society, when out of about 700 candidates
the following were selected, after personal interviews and careful
inquiries :—

George James Landells, second in command
William John Wills, Surveyor and Astronomer
Herman Beckler, Medical Officer and Botanisi
Ludwig Becker, Artist and Naturalist, &c.
Charles D. Ferguson, Assistant and Foreman
William Patten, Assistant

Patrick Langan, do.

Owen Cowen, do.
Robert Fletcher, do.
Henry Creber, do.

William Brahe, do.
John Drakeford, do.
John King, do.
Thos. F. McDonough, do.

These men, after a careful examination by Dr. William Gillbee,
on behalf of the Committee, were pronounced by him free from
physical defect and disease.

The final selection of the route was the next subject of anxious
consideration demanding the attention of your Committee.

There were three principal routes proposed for selection, namely,—
Ist. Port Augusta, at the head of Spencer’s Gulf, and thence to the
north. 2nd. Blunder Bay, at the mouthof the Victoria, on the north-

Reports of Committees. XXXV

west coast, and thence across the country to the South. 3rd. Across
the country by the most direct route to Cooper’s Creek, in lat.
27° 37’ 8", long. 141° 5’, where the party would be on the verge of
the unexplored country, and on a spot where permanent water could
be had, and a depot formed, whence excursions could be made to the
north or north-west as might be deemed desirable, and upon which
the party could at any time fall back for supplies in case of necessity.

The vital importance of the selection to be made gave your Com-
mittee much anxiety, in which the grave responsibility resting on
every member of it was sensibly felt. The reasons for each of these
routes were carefully and calmly weighed, and after a full and earnest
debate, the route by Cooper’s Creek was finally selected, as pos-
sessing the greatest number of advantages that could be secured
consistently with the successful prosecution of the objects of the
enterprise.

The preparations for the long journey were, in the meantime,
rapidly progressing, and the outfit, as suggested by the Committee
and Leader, was approved of by the Government, and furnished for
the most part by the Government Storekeeper. (The list is printed
in Appendix I.)

The expedition being fully equipped and prepared, took its departure
from the Royal Park, August 20th, 1860, in the presence of a vast
concourse of the inhabitants of Melbourne, who enthusiastically
cheered the caravan as it started on its perilous and interesting
journey ; Dr. Richard Eades, Mayor of Melbourne, and Vice-Presi-
dent of the Society, on behalf of the people, wishing Mr. Burke and
his companions God-speed.

Your Committee has only further to state that notwithstanding
some changes in the party, satisfactory progress has been made, and
the latest intelligence confirms the opinion that the efficiency of the
Expedition has been improved by the alterations and reductions that
have been effected.

Your Committee refrains from making any comments on the seces-
sion of some officers, and other events of minor importance which
have been placed before the public from time to time ; and in
closing this report, earnestly commends the interests of the Expedi-
tion and the fair fame of the gallant leader, with all his devoted
officers and brave companions, to the proverbial candour of all honor-
able men, and the warm sympathy of the Royal Society.

XXXVI Reports of Committees.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE INTRODUCTION
OF NEW ANIMALS AND AGRICULTURAL SEEDS.

Your Committee has carefully considered the matter entrusted to
it, and has now the honour of reporting as follows :—

The first important step seems to consist in collecting information
respecting the most valuable seeds and animals to be found in other
countries ; it has therefore drawn up a circular embodying a number
of questions, which circular your Committee would recommend should
be submitted to His Excellency the Governor, with a request, that
His Excellency would be pleased to transmit the same to the Eng-
lish Consuls at foreign ports, and to the Ministers of foreign States,
with the view of obtaining full answers to the questions therein
embodied.

Your Committee would further recommend that the Zoological
Committee, the Port Phillip Farmers’ Society, the Board of Agricul-
ture, and all other public bodies, as well as private individuals, in-
terested in such matters, should be invited to co-operate with this
Society, in thus endeavouring to advance the best material interests
of this colony.

It would also suggest that a copy of the afore-mentioned circular
should be forwarded to the English and the French Societies for the
Acclimatisation of Animals, and to all other kindred societies, solicit-
ing their co-operation in obtaining information.

WitiiAm Lockart Morton, Chairman.

DRAFT OF CIRCULAR REFERRED TO.

Sir—The Royal Society of Victoria, being anxious to obtain the
most authentic information respecting foreign Agricultural Seeds and
useful Animals, with the view of aiding in their introduction into
Australia, has the honor to request that you will kindly furnish it
with information on the following subjects, as far as convenience
may permit.

1. What animals are most esteemed in your country for draught
or burthen ?

2. What varieties of animals are kept for the growth of wool or
hair? What is the average weight and the market value of the fleece
of each kind respectively? To what purpose is each material ap-
plied? Is the flesh of such animals much esteemed as human food ?
What is the value of the skins, of each sort, and for what manu-
facture or other purposes are they employed ?

3. What is the respective average weight of such animals when
fit for slaughter? Whatis thecharacter of the pastures upon which
they thrive best, and are they easily kept or otherwise?

Reports of Committees. XXXVii

4. What animals do you keep for dairy purposes? What average
quantity of milk or butter do they yield? What is the character of
the pasture upon which they are kept?

5. To what average weight do your larger animals devoted to
slaughter attain when fat? To what purposes respectively are the
hides, horns, and bones of such animals applied ?

6. What animals more immediately useful, but still in a wild
state, are found in your country? Are there any that might be
profitably domesticated? Are such of any value in a wild state ?
Could they be adyantageously kept in a semi-domesticated state ?
or, could they be rendered useful by acclimatisation, in other coun-
tries, in a wild state ?

7. What varieties of fowls or other birds have you in a domes-
ticated state, and what are their superior qualities ?

8. Have you any superior kinds of fresh or salt water fish ; if so,
please state their average size, and mention the character of the
waters they live in ?

9. Does your country produce any other animals not belonging to
the afore-mentioned categories, and which of all the animals you
possess would you recommend for acclimatisation in other parts of
the globe ?

10. With what facilities could any of such animals be procured,
and at what probable cost ?

11. What agricultural or other valuable seeds are sown in your
country ?

12. What is the yield per acre of your best varieties of grain ?

13. What is the character of the soil and climate best adapted to
your agricultural plants respectively, and what is the mode of culti-
vation practised ?

14, What cereals, pulse, roots, &c., are cultivated for human food,
and what varieties are grown for feeding or fattening stock ?

15, Can you give the results of any experiments to illustrate the
fattening qualities of articles grown expressly for this purpose ?

16. What varieties of fruits and vegetables are generally grown,
specifying which kinds are yielded most abundantly, and are most
prized ?

17. Which of your indigenous grasses or forage plants are most
luxuriant in growth, and which are capable of standing hot, cold, wet,
or dry weather, respectively ?

18. What area of average pasturage, consisting of any of the
grasses or plants you may possess, is required for the keep of a single
ox or other animal? and what area is reckoned necessary for fatten-
ing either of your domestic animals?

19. Are there in your country any indigenous forage-plants that
might be improved by cultivation 2

. 20. Does your country possess any other valuable forms of vegeta-
ble life, and which of all the seeds, plants and fruits, belonging to

XXXvlii Reports of Committees.

your country, would you recommend for acclimatisation in other
countries of the globe ?

You are respectfully informed that a copy of this circular has been
sent, so far as that has been possible, to every country throughout
the world; and the Royal Society of Victoria trusts, that as the ob-
ject aimed at is not of a selfish character, but intended to benefit all
countries alike, full replies may be given to the subjects embodied
in the foregoing questions, whereby a mass of information will be
collected for universal diffusion.” ;

REPORT OF PRIZE ESSAY JUDGES.

Durine last year (1859) the following notification was made
public :

“ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIAA—GOVERNMENT PRIZE ESSAYS, 1860,

“The Council of the Royal Society of Victoria has to announce
that the Government has placed at the disposal of the Council the
sum of six hundred pounds sterling, voted by the Legislative Assem-
bly as Premiums for Essays. The Council has decided, with the
sanction of the Government, that the premium to be awarded for the
best essay on each subject shall be one hundred and twenty-five
pounds sterling, with a medal. The following subjects have been
selected, viz.:—

“J, On the Collection and Storage of Water in Victoria for Gold-
Washing, Irrigation, Motive-Power, and General Water Supply ;
with reference also to the practicability of Artesian Wells in
certain localities.

“9. On the Origin and Distribution of Gold in Quartz-Veins, and
its Association with other minerals, and on the most approved
Methods for Extracting Gold from its matrices.

* Since the drawing up of this Report the Acclimatisation Society of Vic-
toria has been formed, and is now carrying out, under the auspices of the
Government and the liberality of the Legislature, the objects here con-
templated. ‘

Reports of Committees. XXX1X

“3. On Agriculture in Victoria, with special reference to the Geo-
logical and Chemical Character of Soils, to the Rotation of
Crops, and to the sources and Application of Manures.

“4. On the Manufactures more immediately required for the
Economical Development of the resources of the Colony, with
special reference to those manufactures the raw materials of
which are the produce of Victoria.

“Competitive essays on the above subjects are required to be
written in a legible hand, on foolscap paper, on one side only, and
leaving a two-inch margin. The authors will attach mottos only to
the essays, and accompany each essay with a sealed envelope, con-
taining inside the name and address of the author, and on the outside
the motto affixed to the essay.

“The essays must be in the hands of the Honorary Secretary of
the Royal Society on or before the 1st of October, 1860.

“The Council will appoint, subject to the approval of Government,
three judges, who may or may not be members of the Society, to
decide on the respective value of the competitive essays on each of
the four topics named; but the Council reserves the power to with-
hold the premium in the case of any of the subjects, should the com-
petitive’ essays on that subject be considered unworthy of such a
reward.

“ The essays receiving premiums shall be considered the property
of the Government.

“ Royal Society, Victoria-street, Melbourne, March 28, 1860.”

In accordance with this notification, essays to the number of
twenty-six were forwarded to the Royal Society, and, after careful
examination, the following essays were adjudged to be the successful
ones, viz. :—

The subjects treated of in these essays all relate to the further
development or more economical use of the principal natural resources
of the colony. While some of these have been already so fully deve-
loped as to have placed Victoria in a commanding position, it can
scarcely be denied that others admit of still further development, and
indeed must have the attention they demand, if the progress of the
country is to be at all commensurate in the future with that which
has marked it for the last few years. Moreover, as the increase of
population requires that new sources of industry should be made
known, these essays are also designed to indicate the direction in
which such sources may be found by those whose unemployed labor
or capital seek for a fresh outlet for profitable investment.

The first essay treats of the economical use of the water supply of
the country, so as to render it more available for the gold miner, the
agriculturist, the manufacturer, and for general, domestic, and sanitary
purposes, By collecting and storing the frequently superabundant

xl Reports of Committees.

supply of water, so as to insure a more constant and less costly one,
valuable assistance will be given to existing industrial pursuits, many
of which are less permanent, at present, than if they could fall back on
a reliable water supply, thus adding to the profitable employment
of the population and the increase of the available wealth of the
country.

The second essay deals with an important branch of gold mining
enterprise, and while, to some extent, necessarily taken up with dis-
cussing the theories as to the formation of quartz lodes, it yet enters
into practical details which cannot fail to be of benefit to those en-
gaged in quartz mining pursuits, enabling them to conduct their
operations with more economy, and to utilise what has often been
hitherto considered the refuse of the mines, the waste arising from
ignorance of its value, or the proper method of treating it to ad-
vantage.

The third essay is occupied with the geological and chemical
character, &c., of the various soils of the country, a correct knowledge
of which alone can enable the agriculturist to carry on his operations
with success when the original qualities of the soil have been ex-
hausted, and it becomes necessary to add fertilising elements to make
up for those in which it has become poor. To those who are informed
on such matters the essay in question may not be entirely profitless ;
while to those—and they are many—whose farming operations are
frequently matters of haphazard, this essay will be read with plea-
sure, and the principles laid down in it probably followed with
advantage.

The questions of water-supply, agriculture, and gold mining having
been so far disposed of, the fourth essay is occupied with the consider-
ation of the manufactures which may be necessary to the economical
development of such resources as have been as yet but partially re-
cognised in Victoria. A proper degree of attention to the several
matters treated of in these essays will, to some extent, enable those,
whether in Victoria or at a distance, who possess either less know-
ledge or more capital than the writers, to judge of the fitness of
Victoria as a field for the employment of labor, or the investment of
capital.

Whatever else may be the result, it is to be hoped that the
perusal of these essays will incite to a more careful study, and a more
economical use of the vast resources which require but science and
industry to develop them, that Victoria may go on from prosperity
to prosperity, celebrated not only for her fertile soil and inexhaustible
mineral wealth, but also for her superior manufactures, and the
quality of the raw materials she is destined to supply so largely for
the industry of other countries.

JoHN Macapam, M.D.,
Honorary Secretary to the Royal Society of Victoria.

Reports of Committees. xli

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE INDIGENOUS
FIBROUS PLANTS OF THE COLONY SUITABLE FOR
PAPER-MAKING.

Government Offices, Melbourne,
17th October, 1860.

Sm—I am directed by the Governor to forward to the Royal
Society of Victoria the enclosed copy of a despatch which His
Excellency has received from the Imperial Government, requesting
information with regard to any fibrous plants or grasses that may
exist in this colony.—I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient
servant,
O. F. Trmins, Private Secretary.
Dr. John Macadam, M.L,A.,
Secretary Royal Society of Victoria, &c.,

(coPy.)

Downing-street, 3rd August, 1860.

Sir—The extreme want felt by the manufacturing interest of Great
Britain of raw material for the production of textile fabrics, has
induced an application to the Committee of the General Association
for the Australian Colonies for the purpose of discovering the
existence (if any) of some fibrous product in the Australian Continent
which might tend to remove the difficulty, and at the same time
prove a sufficiently valuable article of commerce to ensure its being
successfully and profitably cultivated.

2. In compliance with the request of a deputation of the Aus-
tralian Committee who waited upon the Secretary of State, I have to
draw your attention to the great importance of this subject, and to
the probability of there being some fibrous grasses of a valuable kind
indigenous to the colony under your government.

3. It would be very desirable that these grasses should be
collected (if possible) by the Government Botanists, and sent to
England—consigned to the colonial agent—for the purpose of having
their value tested in such a manner as may best secure the object in
view.

4, In the event of its being found practicable to comply with this
application, Mr. Bazley, M.P., has offered to place the Committee of
the Australian Association in communication with several leading
manufacturers, who will gratuitously test the value of the several
consignments.—I have, &c.,

(Signed) G. C. Lewis.

xii Reports of Committees.

REPORT.

Melbourne Botanic and Zoological Gardens,
October, 1860.

Sir—I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter,
dated 15th October, accompanied by a copy of a despatch from the
Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, desiring information on
such plants, yielding textile fibre, as are indigenous to the colony of
Victoria, and are likely to supply a want of raw material for British
manufactures.

Whilst in compliance with his Excellency the Governor’s request,
I beg to submit such information as I possess on indigenous vegetable
fibres, I regret that I cannot point to any native plant extensively
available for the desired purpose, or holding out the prospect of suc-
cessful introduction into British manufactures.

But it appears to me that the two varieties of New Zealand flax
(Phormium tenaz) are deserving of especial attention, as likely to
supply the wanting material to British weavers, the strength of the
phormium fibre being almost equal to that of silk, and little
doubt being entertained that finally the genius of invention will
overcome the hitherto experienced difficulty of separating by ‘an
easy method, without sacrifice of the material’s strength, the fibre
from the leaves.

I beg further to draw attention to the extreme facility with which
this plant might be reared on places not available for any other culti-
vation (such as margins of swamps, periodically inundated banks of
lakes, &c.); further, to its great vigor of growth, to the probability of
its proving quite hardy in the southern parts of England and Ireland,
and to the certainty of its cultivation being attended with full success
in South Europe, and therefore in proximity to the British market,
and under the advantage of cheap labor.

Specimens for experiment on this promising, and moreover highly
ornamental plant will be readily available in Europe, where the plant
has been introduced already, in the beginning of the year 1788.

The fibre of the less prolific Doryanthes excelsa, or Giant Lily, of
New South Wales, greatly resembles that of the phormium.

The fibre of various of our native plants is employed by the abori-
gines for making their nets and fishing lines, and indiscriminately
called by them “Curryong.” Still it remains yet a subject of inquiry
whether the products of these plants can be brought into qualitative
competition with other textile fibres hitherto drawn into universal
use, admitted even that the respective plants could be found all in
sufficient abundance, or cultivated with a prospect of remunerative

ield.
) The Pimelea axiflora (Ferd. Mueller) was recently observed in
sreat frequency near Twofold Bay, whence it extends to Port Phillip,
and I shall have no difficulty, therefore, to obtain of its tough bark,

Reports of Committees. xl

and of that of the allied Pimelea ligustrina, panciflora, and micro-
cephala, samples of bark, all four species being of tall growth, and
hence of large yield of fibre.

Sida pulchella (Bonpl.), Brachychiton populnewm (Rob. Brown),
and Commersonia Frasert (Gay), are the other native plants known to
be principally employed by the aborigines for obtaining cordage.
Considerable quantity of the bark of the former might be gathered
in the forests of this colony and of Tasmania ; the two other species
have but their scattered outposts on the eastern frontiers of Gipps
Land, the main body of plants extending through New South Wales
and Queensland.

We possess in Victoria a few species of asclepiadeous plants,
which yield a kind of cotton similar to that once by the ancients
spun into ropes, as microscopically demonstrated from Pompeiian
relics ; but since allied European asclepiadex seem no longer em-
ployed in the older countries, it is not likely that we will derive ad-
vantages of those of these states.

A perennial flax (Linum marginale, All. Cunn.) is by no means
rare in this colony, but it is not likely to possess any advantages over
the common flax, should, indeed, it bear comparison with the Euro-
pean cultivated one.

The Tasmanian stringybark trees, which, as I anticipated, have
been, by comparison with original specimens in Sir Joseph Banks’
herbarium, identified by Mr. Richard Kippist with the original
Eucalyptus obliqua of L’Heritier (having been collected during
Cook’s third voyage at Adventure Bay, by David Nelson), yields, as
well as an allied species, which bears amongst the colonists the name
of “ Mountain Ash,” a certainly fibrous, still, not tenacious bark, there-
fore not available for textile fibre, although, perhaps, for the manu-
facture of a coarse paper ; otherwise their bark, which moreover is
so readily separable, might be obtained in the utmost profusion. —
I have the honor to be, Sir, your most obedient servant,

Ferp. MUELLER, Government Botanist.
To Capt. Timins,
Private Secretary to His Excellency
Sir Henry Barkly, K.C.B., &e., &e., &e.

Postscript.—Attention may also be directed to the fibre of some
species of stipa, common in this colony, and more particularly to the
fibre yielded ‘by a sedge, Cypirus vaginatus, which occurs in the
greatest abundance on the River Murray and its tributaries, and in
many other parts of Victoria. The aborigines form very durable and
tenacious cordage from this sedge, and employ it extensively for
fishing nets.

The useful fibrous properties of the Lepidosperma gladiatum, and
another plant, the Lavatera plebeja, were brought into notice by Mr.
Alexander Tolmer, of South Australia, who had observed the natives

xliv Reports of Committees.

use them for the purpose of making baskets and fishing nets. This
circumstance induced him to attempt to turn them to account for the
purpose of making paper. Accordingly, to test them, he sent a
quantity to England, where it was made into a useful paper.

The Lepidosperma is perennial, and has been found in large
quantities growing most luxuriantly on the banks of the Murray and
several other parts of the Australian continent.

The manufacturer in England who tried its paper-making qualities
reported “that there is no doubt whatever of its making good paper ;
but that the price, exact loss of weight, &c., can only be determined
by a continuous working of a large quantity.”

To prepare it for the market, it may either be cut down close to the
roots, the root being left to spring again. It is then left exposed to
the action of the night dews, and the hot sun in the day, and occa-
sionally turned over, until by this exposure the plant becomes
partially bleached. It is then cut up into short lengths in any suit-
able machine, such as a chaff-cutter, and afterwards bleached by
chloride of lime or any other of the well-known bleaching processes.
Tt contains a gummy matter, which it is of importance to free it
from. The material will then be in a fit state to be manufactured in
the same manner as any other fibrous material is converted into paper.

The Lavatera plebzja is also an indigenous perennial plant, and
grows freely throughout South Australia, Victoria, and New South
Wales. It may be obtained in considerable quantities along the
banks of the Murray and many of its tributaries, and is also found
scattered over various parts of the colony. The fact of its abounding
along the banks and in the marshes of a navigable river, such as the
Murray is, renders it highly probable that it may be made an article of
commerce.

The surveyor of the Victorian Expedition reported that “it clothes
the banks of the Moriaminta Creek, and grows to an immense size
on nearly all the creeks out here”—that is, beyond the Darling.

The treatment of this plant for the purpose of paper-making cor-
responds with that applied to the Lepidosperma gladiata.

LIST OF INSTITUTIONS, LEARNED SOCIETIES, &c., RECEIVING
COPIES OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY
OF VICTORIA, 1860.

Wide. PV:

Royal Asiatic Society, London
Foreign Office Library
Horticultural Society, London
Zoological Society, London
Athenzeum, London

British Museum, London
Meteorological Society, London
Statistical Society, London
Geological Society, London

Royal Astronomical Society, London
Museum of Economical Geology
Royal Society, London

Institute of Engineers

Royal Geographical Society
Linnzan Society of London
University Library, Cambridge
Philosophical Society, Cambridge
Philosophical Library, Oxford
Royal Irish Academy

University Library, Edinburgh
Professor Balfour, Edinburgh
Royal Society, Edinburgh
University Library, Glasgow

Royal Botanical Society, Edinburgh
Royal Scottish Society of Arts, Edinburgh

xlvi List of Institutions, &c.

Royal Society of Copenhagen

Royal Academy, Stockholm

Meteorological Society, Utrecht

Royal Botanical Society, Ratisbon

Society of Naturalists, Halle

Imperial Society, Moscow

Archeelogical Society of Copenhagen

Petermann’s Geographical Journal

Royal Institute, Utrecht

Ernest A. Zueholdt, Leipzig (in reciprocation for his Journal)

Philosophical Society, Sydney

Philosophical Society, Adelaide

Smithsonian Institute, Washington, U.S.

Natural History Society, Boston

Royal Society, Tasmania

American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia

Pharmaceutical Society, Victoria

Augustus Gregory, Esq., Brisbane

His Excellency Sir H. Barkly, K.C.B., for transmission to Her
Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, 5 copies

Sir W. Denison

C. Ledger, Esq. (in reciprocation for coca leaves)

Duke of Newcastle

H. R. H. Prince Albert

Professor Asa Gray, Boston, U.S.

Royal Society of Arts

Trinity College, Dublin

Royal Society of Edinburgh

Philosophical Society, Glasgow

Imperial Institute, Vienna

Society of Arts, Mauritius

Institute of France

Imperial Geographical Institute, Vienna

Society of Arts and Sciences, Batavia

Professor Goeppert, Breslau

Professor Grube, Koenigsberg

*

List of Institutions, &c. xlvii

Museum, Cape of Good Hope

Agricultural and Horticultural Society, Madras
Royal Academy, Berlin

Imperial Academy, St. Petersburg

Society of Culture, Silesia

Royal Academy, Munich

Society of Naturalists, Blankenburg

Royal Society, Goettingen

Physiographic Society, Lund

Society of Northern Antiquaries, Copenhagen
Geographical Society, New York

Professor Haidinger, Vienne Geological Institute
Societé Imperiale d’Acclimatisation, Paris
Horticultural Society of St. Petersburg

“poet OR ORS

mene
sey 4 iy fe +a
¥

MEMBERS
or

Pei ROY ALie SOC LE TY

OF VICTORIA.

MEMBERS
i
Ghe Koval Society of Victoria,
31st December, 1860.

(AS FURNISHED BY THE TREASURER.)

[Those whose names have * or + prefixed, are Life or Honorary Members
respectively. |

Acheson, Frederick, Esq., C.E., Crown Lands Office
. Ackhurst, W., Esq., Brunswick-street, Fitzroy
Adams, Robert, Esq., C.E., Government Railway Department
Age, Alfred J., Esq., Audit Office, Lonsdale-street
Alpin, Christopher D’Oyley Hay, Esq., Assistant Geological
Surveyor, Crown Lands Office
Amsinck, Henry, Lieut. R.N., M.L.A., Melbourne
Archer, W. H., Esq., Registrar-General, Melbourne
Aresti, Joseph, Esq., Lithographer, Smith-street, Fitzroy
Aspinall, B. C., Esq., M.L.A., St. Kilda

Bancroft, W. C., Esq., Lieut., A.D.C., Government House

Ballantyne, Rev. James, Nicholson-street, Fitzroy

Bardin, Rev. C. P. M., Brunswick

Barker, Edward, Esq., M.R.C.8.L., Latrobe-street

tBarkly, Sir Henry, K.C.B., His Excellency the Governor

Barry, Redmond, Sir, Chancellor of the University of Mel-
bourne, Carlton Gardens

Barry, Rev. John, D.D., St. Francis

Baxter, Rev. W., M.A., Church of England Grammar School,
South Yarra

a 2

Ii

List of Members.

Beaney, Dr., Collins-street east

Becker, Ludwig, Esq., Union Hotel, Bourke-street
Bell, Francis, Esq., C.E., Elizabeth-street

Belt, Thomas, Esq , Mount Egerton

Berndt, Adolphus, Esq., M.D., Lonsdale-street
Bibbs, Thomas, Esq., Government Survey Office, Crown Lands
Black, Joseph, Esq., M.R.C.S.L., Bourke-street west
Black, Dr. thomas, St. Kilda

Blackburn, James, Esq., C.E., Richmond

Blair, David, Esq., Gore-street, Collingwood

Blaie, John, Esq., Surgeon, Northcote

Blanch, J. J., Esq., Schoolmaster, Taraville

Bland, R. H., Esq., Melbourne

*Blandowski, William, Esq.
*Bleasdale, Rev. John I.,-St. Francis, Vice-President

Bosisto, Joseph, Esq., Chemist, Richmond

Bowie, R., Esq. M.R.C.S.L., Surgeon Superintendent, Yarra
Bend

Bradshaw, E., Esq., St. Kilda

Brady, Joseph, Esq., C.E. ',

Braithwaite, C., Esq., C.I., Office of Roads and Bridges

Brodribb, K. E., Esq., Chancery-lane

Bromby, Rev. J. E., D.D., Principal of the Church of England
Grammar School, South Yarra

Brooke, J. H., Esq., M.L.A., Khull’s Gold Office

Brown, Thomas, Esq., Gardiner’s Creek-road

Brownless, Anthony C., Esq., M.D., Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Melbourne, Latrobe-street

Bruce, J. V. A., Esq.

Bryson, W. E., Esq., C.E., Government Railway office, Melbourne

Budd, Richard H., Esq., B.A., Denominational School Office

Bull, Captain J. E. N., Gold-Fields Warden, Castlemaine

Burn, Andrew, Esq., Free Church School, Geelong

+Cadell, Francis, Captain

Cairms, John, Esq., Hall of Commerce

List of Members. hi

Campbell, Thomas, Esq.
Campbell, Colin, Esq., Raglan
Campbell, Robert, Esq., North Melbourne
Campbell, W. H., Esq., Surgeon, Collins-street east
Carr, J. Warburton, Warden, &c., Anderson’s Creek
Chalmers, W. L., Esq.
Chambers, Hugh, Esq., Solicitor
Chirnside, Thomas, Esq., Werribee
Chapman, The Hon. H. §., M.L.A., St. Kilda
Christopherson, O. H., Esq., Govt. Railway Office, Melbourne
Christy, F. C., Esq., C.E., Government Railway Office, Geelong
Clark, Robert N., Esq., B.A.
+Clarke, The Hon. A., Captain, R.E.
Clarson, William, Esq., Bourke-strect east
*Clow, Rev. James, Queensclitf
Coates, Dr., South Yarra
Corbett, Francis A., Esq., Registrar General’s office, Bourke-
street west
Crooke, William, Esq., M.R.C.S., Brunswick-street, Fitzroy
Cutts, William H., Esq., M.D., Bourke-street west

Damm, Professor Charles, Principal of German College, Apsley
Place
Dauglish, Henry W., Esq., William-street
Davis, J., Esq., North Melbourne
Dell, James, Esq., Assistant Engineer, Sewerage and Water
Commission
+Denison, Sir William, K.C.B., F.R.S., Governor General,
Lieutenant Colonel R.E., President of the Philosophical
Society of New South Wales, &c., &e.,
Dill, George, Esq., Argus Office
Divorty, Rey. George, A.M., South Yarra
*“Dobree, Arthur, Esq., Flinders-street west
Donaghy, John, Esq., St. Francis’ School
Dow, James H., Esq., Foundry, Flinders-street west

liv

Last of Members.

Eades, Richard, Esq., M.A., M.B., Collins-street east, Mayor of
Melbourne

Eaton, H. F., Esq., Government Stores

Elder, Henry, Esq., Bourke-street east

Ellery, R. L. J., Esq., Director of the Observatory, Williamstown
* Elliott, Sizar, Esq., J.P., Bourke-street east
“Elliott, T., jun., Esq., Bourke-street east

Elsden, William, Esq., C.E., Hobson’s Bay Railway

Embling, Thomas, Esq., M.R.C.S., Gore-street, Collingwood

Fairfax, W., Esq., Collins-street east

Farewell, Charles, Esq., M.A., Town Hall

Fawcett, James W., Esq., Melbourne

Feldheim, J. J., Esq., Queen-street

Fenner, Rev. T. P., M.A., South Yarra

Fisher, Alexander, Esq., M.R.C.S.E.

Fitzgibbon, E. G., Esq., Town Hall

Fitzpatrick, Very Rev. J., D.D., St. Francis

Fletcher, Rev. Richard, St. Kilda

Ford, Frederick T. W., Esq., M.R.C.S., Mackenzie-street
+Frederick VII, His Majesty the King of Denmark

Fyfe, Alexander, Esq., Back Creek

+Goeppert, H. R., Knt., M.D., Ph.D., Privy Councillor of State
for Medicine, Professor of Medicine and Botany in the
University of Breslau
Gardiner, Martin, Esq., C.E., Victoria-street, North Melbourne
Gell, Francis T., Esq., 32 Queen-street
Gemmell, J., Dr., Woodville, East St. Kilda
Gibson, R., Esq., C.E., Tarraville

*Gilfillan, J. A., Esq., Collins-street east

Gillbee, William, Esq., M.R.C.S.E., Collins-street east

Gilmore, Robert G., Esq., Cole’s Wharf

Goodhugh, William, Esq., Flinders-lane east

Goold, The Right Rev. J. A., D.D., His Lordship the Catholic
Bishop of Melbourne

List of Members. ‘ly

Greene, William H., Esq., C.F.
'Gregory, A. C., Esq.
Guerard, Eugene Von, Esq., Artist, Collins-street east

Hadden, John, Esq., M.D., Napier-street, Collingwood
t+Haidinger, Von, Professor, K.M.T., &c., &c., of Vienna, Director
General of the Geological Survey of Austria
Hamilton, John Scott, Esq., 129 Russell-street
Hamilton, W., Esq., John Knox School
Hanify, Michael John Page, Esq., J.P., Lennox-street, Richmond
Hart, H. J., Esq., St. Kilda
Hawkins, Matthew W., Esq., Railway Department
Hayes, Patrick, Esq., Manufacturing Chemist, Saltwater River
Hearn, Professor, M.A., L.L.D., University
Henderson, Rev. William, Ballarat
_ Hepburn, Thomas, Esq., Smeaton, Creswick
~ Heron, J. D. §8., Esq., Fryers Town
Hetherington, Rev. Irving, Collins-street east
Hickson, J. B., Esq., Homceopathist, Russell-street
Higginson, Rev. Henry, Gipps-street west
Higinbotham, George, Esq., Temple Court
Higinbotham, Thomas, Esq., C.E., Inspector General of Roads
and Bridges
‘Higgins, Patrick, Esq., Flemington
Hill, W., Esq., C.E., Blaydon House, Brunswick
Hodgkinson, Clement, Esq., C.E., Deputy Surveyor-General
Hodgson, The Hon. John, M.L.C., Melbourne Club
Hodgson, C. J., Esq., Metallurgist, Melbourne
Hood, John, Esq., M.L.A., 3 Victoria Parade
*Holmes, George, Esq., box, Post Office
Hopwood, H., Esq., Echuca
Horne, Hon. G. 8. W., Esq., M.L.A., 28 Queen-street
Hough, G. 8., Esq., Avgus Office
Houghton, James B., Esq., Melbourne
Howitt, Godfrey, Esq., M.D., Collins-street east
Howitt, William, Esq., M.R.C.8.E., Melbourne Hospital

lvi LIist of Members.

+Howitt, William, Esq.
Hughes, D. A., Esq., Prahran
Hull, William B., Esq., C.E., Railway Department

TErson, Thomas William, Esq., Professor of Music, Geelong
*Tffla, Soloman, Esq., J.P., Surgeon, Collins-st. east, 2ce-President
Irving, Professor, M.A., University, Z’reaswrer

Jamieson, John, Esq., South Yarra

Jarrett, Rev. William, Brunswick

Joachimi, Gustav, Esq., Public Works Department
Jones, Edwin, Esq., 19 Collins-street east

Jones, P. F., Esq., Wiliamstown

Joseph, Henry, Esq., Bank of Australasia, Sandhurst
Johnson, A. E., Esq., Stephen-street

Kane, Benjamin H., Esq., National School Board
tKay, Captain J., R.N., Government House

Kemp, Samuel V., Esq., C.E., Government Railway office,
Melbourne

Kennedy, Rev. J., Ballarat

Kenworthy, Dr. C. J., President of the Horticultural Society,
Ballarat, and Surgeon to the Hospital, Ballarat

Kershaw, William, Esq., 142 Johnston-street, Collingwood

Knages, Robert, Esq., M.R.C.S8.L., King-street .

Knight, J. G., Esq., C.E., Parliament Houses

Kruse, John, Esq., Chemist, Bourke-street east

Lanktree, John, Esq., Government Railway office

Larritt, Richard W., Esq., Sandhurst

Le Gould, Charles, Esq., C.E., Crown Lands office

Lewis, George, Esq., Pharmaceutical Chemist, Collins-street
Ligar, Charles Whybrow, Esq., C.E., Surveyor-General
Lloyd, Frederick, Esq., M.D., 100 Elizabeth-street

Loader, The Hon. Thomas, M.L.A., Elizabeth-street

Lowry, H. A., Esq., Melbourne

Lyall, William, Esq., M.L.A., Library of Parliament

List of Members. lyii

*Macadam, John, Esq., M.D., F.R.S.S.A., M.L.A., Government

Analytical Chemist, lonorary Secretary

Macarthur, Major-General, C.B.

MacDonald, Rey. Evan, Kyneton

McCoy, Professor, F.G.S., H.M.C.P.S., Government Palzeonto-
Jogist and Director of Museums, University

McCrea, George Gordon, Esq., Chief-Secretary’s Office

McMillan, Dr., Kyneton

McCutcheon, John, Esq., Wesleyan School, Richmond

Macdonald, Rev. Donald, A.M., Emerald Hill

McGillivray, P. H., Esq., Williamstown

M‘Gowan, 8. W., Esq., Superintendent of Electric Telegraphs

Macgregor, Joseph, A. J., Esq., Solicitor, Swanston-street

Macguire, F. J., Esq., Consul, United States of America

Mackay, George, Esq., LL.D., Temple Court

Mackenna, J. William, Esq., Surgeon, Collins-street east

Mackenzie, J. 8. Esq., Williamstown

Mackie, Rev. George, Burrembeet

Maclean, David P., Esq., M.R.C.S.L.

MeMillan, Angus, Esq., M.L.A., Parliament House

Macrae, James, Dr., Napier-street, Collingwood

Madden, John, Esq., Solicitor, Bourke-street east

Main, W. Findlay, Esq., National Schools, Castlemaine

Manuel, Richard, Esq., C.E., Collingwood

Marsh, 8. H., Esq., Professor of Music

Marshall, J., Esq., Solicitor, Little Collins-street

Martley, The Hon. J. F., Esq., M.L.A., Solicitor-General

Mayes, Charles, Esq., C.E., Government Railway Department

_ Menzies, John, Esq., M.D., Teacher, National Model and

Training School

Michie, Archibald, Esq., M.L,A.

Millar, George, Esq., Rokeby Hall, Collingwood

Millar, John, Esq., F'.S.A., C.E., Geelong |

Miller, Hon. Henry, M.L.C., Bank of Victoria

Miscamble, J., Esq., M.R.C.V.S., 3 Little Bourke-street east

Moors, Henry, Esq., St. Kilda

lyin

List of Members.

Morgan, R. Rowland, Esq., Roads and Bridges
Morison, Rev. Alexander, Collins-street east

Morrison, Alexander, Esq., M.A., Scotch College
Morton, William L., Esq., Caroline-street, South Yarra
Motherwell, James B., Esq., M.D., Collins-street east”

+Mueller, Ferdinand, Esq., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.G.S., Government

Botanist, President
Murphy, The Hon. Francis, M.L.A., Speaker, Parliament House
Musson, John, Esq., St. Kilda

Nash, Richard, Esq., Government Storekeeper

Neumayer, George, Professor, Government Meteorologist, and
Director of the Magnetic Survey of Victoria

Nicholson, The Hon. William, M.L.A., Chief Secretary

Nish, Rev. J., Sandhurst

O’Connor, Nicholas, Esq., 100 Elizabeth-street
O’Hea, Rey. Charles, St. Patrick’s

O’Shanassy, Hon. John, Esq., M.L.A., Hawthorne
Orlebar, A. B., Esq., M.A., National Schools
Osborne, John Walter, Esq., Crown Lands Office
Otway, W. B., Esq., M.D., Steiglitz

Pasley, Hon. C., Captain R.E., Public Works Department
Panton, J. A., Esq., Gold-fields Warden, Sandhurst

Parker, Edward Stone, Esq., Mount Franklin

Pascoe, John Randall, Esq., J.P., Gas office, Collins-street east
Passmore, Richard A., Esq., Melbourne .
Perry, The Right Rev. C., D.D., Lord Bishop of Melbourne
Perry, W., Esq., Collins-street west

Pinnock, J. D., Esq., Emigration office, King-street
Pittman, J., Esq., Survey office

Powens, A. S., Esq.

Powlett, F. A., Esq., Melbourne Club

Preshaw, Dr. W. F., J.P., Coroner, Castlemaine

List of Members. lix

Proeschel, F., Esq., Map Compiler, 81 Carrington-street
Collingwood
Pugh, W. R., Esq , M.D., Collins-street

Ralph, Thomas 8., Esq., M.R.C.S.L., Caroline-street, South
Yarra
Randle, William, Esq.
Rawlings, J. H., Esq., C.E., Epping
Rawlins, Thomas, Esq.
*Rawlinson, Thomas E. Esq., C.E., Highett-street, Richmond
“Reed, Joseph, Esq., Architect, Melbourne
Rentsch, §., Esq., Swiss Consul, Melbourne
Richardson, E., Esq., Post-office, Essendon
Robertson, C. G., Esq., Registrar-General’s Office, Grattan-
street, Hawthorn
Robertson, James, Esq., M.A., M.D., Swanston-street
Robertson, Captain T., St. Kilda
Robertson, William, Esq., Wooling, near Gisborne
Ross, Alfred, Esq., Market-square
Ross, Captain, R.N., Marine Surveyor
Russell, Alex., Esq., Surgeon, M.L.A., 7 Royal-terrace
Ryder, George H., Esq., Charles-street, Richmond

Sasse, Edmund, Esq , Professor of Music, Geelong
tScott, R., Esq.
tScott, Rev. William, M.A., F.C.P.S., Astronomer of New South
Wales
Seurry, Alfred, Esq., Melbourne
Selwyn, Alfred R. C. Esq., Government Geologist, Crown
Lands office
Shiel, Very Rev. Louis, St. Francis
Skene, Alexander John, Esq., C.E., District Surveyor, Geelong
Skilling, Thomas, Esq., Flemington
Slade, Edgar, Esq.
*Smith, Alexander K., Esq., C.E., F.R.S.S.A.

Ix List of Members.

+Smith, John, Esq., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Univer-

sity of Sydney, &e.

Smith, James, Esq., Punc Office, Swanston-street

Smith, James, Esq., South Yarra

Smith, L. L., Esq., L.S.A., Bourke-street east

Smith, Peter Henry, Esq., Richmond Barracks

Smyth, Robert Brough, Esq., F.G.S., Crown Lands office

Spowers, Allan, Esq., Agus Office

Stanbridge, W. E., Esq., Wombat

Stawell, Sir William Foster, His Honor the Chief Justice,
Supreme Court

Stevenson, Henry, Esq., North Melbourne

Strutt, Charles E., Esq., M.R.C.S.L.

Swyer, C. R, Esq., C.E., Temple Court

Symonds, Edward C., Esq., Audit office

Taylor, Matthew W., Esq., Collins-street west
Taylor, H. ibe Esq., Victoria Bank
Teale, Goodman, Esq., William-street
Thomas, E. J., Esq., Government Stores
Thompson, Dr. A., Esq., M.L.A., Geelong
Thompson, John, Esq., 39 Collins-street west
Thomson, Ramsay, Esq., C.E., Melbourne
Thomson, William, Esq., C.E., Melbourne
Tierney, Daniel J., Esq., M.D., Registrar-General, Prince’s
Bridge
+Todd, Charles, Esq.
Tracy, Richard Thomas, Esq., M.D., Brunswick-street
Turnbull, W. M., Esq., M.D., M.R.C.S.E., Spring-street
Turner, Rev. J., Condell-street, Fitzroy
Tyers, C. J., Esq., Crown Lands Office

Ulrich, George, Esq., Assistant Geological Surveyor
Urquhart, William Swan, Esq.

Taist of Members. lxi

Vaughan, The Hon, Charles, M.L.C., Royal Terrace, Fitzroy
Venables, Henry Pares, Esq., B.A., Inspector, National Schools
Vieusseux, Louis, Esq., Fitzroy-square

Wade, W., Esq., Kew

Walker, John, Esq., Architect, Queen-street

Watson, John, Esq., J.P., Robe-street, St. Kilda
Watson, Robert, Esq., C.E., Geelong Government Railway Office
Watts, Henry, Esq., Warrnambool

Watts, Henry E., Esq., “Argus” Office

Waugh, Rev. James Swanton, Carlton Gardens

Weire, William, Esq., Town Clerk, Geelong

Were, J. B., Esq., Danish Consul, Flinders-lane east
Whyte, Patrick, Esq., National Schools

Wilhelmi, Charles, Esq., Assistant Government Botanist
*Wilkie, The Hon. David E., Esq., M.D., M.L.C., Collins-street

east

Wilkie, Joseph, Esq., M.L.A., Collins-street east
Wilkinson, H., Esq., C.E., Prahran

Williams, The Rev. Thomas, late Missionary in Fiji
*Wilson, Professor, M.A., F.C.P.S8., University

Wood, The Hon. J. D., M.L.A., Attorney-General
Woods, Rev. Julian Edmund, Penola, South Australia
Woolcott, J. §., Esq., Solicitor, Church-street, Richmond
Woolridge, Henry, Esq., Surgeon, South Yarra

Wright, H. M., Esq., Barrister, 72 Chancery Lane ~

Zeal, William A., Esq., C.E,

Ixii List of Members.

« SUSPENSE LIST.
MEMBERS ABSENT FROM THE COLONY.

A’ Becket, His Honor Sir Wiliam
Bonwick, James, Esq.
Edwards, Henry, Esq.
Dickson, John E. I., Esq.
Griffith, Charles J., Esq.
Goethe, Rev. Dr.
Kentish, N. L., Esq.
Haines, The Hon. W. C.
Ray, Edgar, Esq.

Schultz, William, Esq.
Wilson, Edward, Esq.

APPENDICES.

PE EN: DEX ae

INSTRUCTIONS TO ROBERT OHARA BURKE, ESQ,
LEADER, VICTORIAN EXPLORING EXPEDITION.

Exploration Committee, Royal Society of Victoria,
Melbourne, August 18th, 1860.

Srr,—I am directed by the Committee to convey to you the
instructions and views which have been adopted in connection with
the duties which devolve upon you as leader of the party now
organised to explore the interior of Australia.

The Committee having decided upon Cooper’s Creek, of Sturt’s, as
the basis of your operations, requests that you will proceed thither,
form a depot of provisions and stores, and make arrangements for
keeping open a communication in your rear to the Darling—if in
your opinion advisable—and thence to Melbourne, so that you may
be enabled to keep the Committee informed of your movements, and
receive in return the assistance in stores and advice of which you may
stand in need. Should you find that a better communication can be
made by way of the South Australian Police Station near Mount
Serle, you jill avail yourself of that means of writing to the
Committee.

In your route to Cooper’s Creek, you will avail yourself of any
opportunity that may present itself for examining and reporting on
the character of the country east and west of the Darling.

You will make arrangements for carrying the stores to a point
opposite Mount McPherson, which seems to the Committee to be the
best point of departure from this river for Cooper’s Creek; and while
the main body of the party is proceeding to that point, you may have
further opportunities of examining the country on either side of your
route,

In your further progress from Mount McPherson towards Cooper's

©

Ixvi Instructions to Leader,

Creek, the Committee also desires that you should make further
detours to the right and left with the same object. .

The object of the Committee in directing you to Cooper’s Creek
is, that you should explore the country intervening between it and
Leichhardt’s track south of the Gulf of Carpentaria, avoiding as far
as practicable Sturt’s route on the west, and Gregory’s down the
Victoria on the east.

To this object the Committee wishes you to devote your energies
in the first instance, but should you determine the impracticability of
this route, you are desired to turn westward into the country recently
discovered by Stuart, and connect his furthest point northward with
Gregory’s furthest southern exploration in 1856 (Mount Wilson).

In proceeding from Cooper’s Creek to Stuart’s country, you may
find the salt marshes an obstacle to the progress of the camels; if so,
it is supposed you will be able to avoid these marshes by turning to
the northward as far as Eyre’s Creek, where there is permanent
water, and going then westward to Stuart’s furthest, Should you,
however, fail in connecting the two points of Stuart’s and Gregory’s
furthest, or should you ascertain that this space has been already
traversed, you are requested—if possible—to connect your explo-
rations with those of the younger Gregory in the vicinity of Mount
Gould, and thence you might proceed to Shark’s Bay, or down the
_ River Murchison to the settlements in Western Australia.

This country would afford the means of recruiting the strength of
your party; and you might, after a delay of five or six months, be
enabled, with the knowledge of the country you shall have previously
acquired, to return by amore direct route through South Australia to
Melbourne.

If you should, however, have been successful in connecting Stuart’s
with Gregory’s furthest point in 1856 (Mount Wilson), and your
party should be equal to the task, you would probably find it possible
from thence to reach the country discovered by the younger Gregory.

The Committee is fully aware of the difficulty of the country you
are called on to traverse, and, in giving you these instructions, has
placed these routes before you more as an indication of what it has
been deemed desirable to have accomplished, than as igdicating any
exact course for you to pursue.

The Committee considers you will find a better and a safer guide
in the natural features of the country through which you will have
to pass. For all useful and practical purposes, it will be better for
you and the object of future settlement that you should follow the
water courses, and the country yielding herbage, than pursue any
route which the Committee might be able to sketch out from an im-
perfect map of Australia.

The Committee entrusts you with the largest discretion as regards
the forming of depéts, and your movements generally, but requests
that you will mark your routes as permanently as possible, by leaving

Victorian Exploring Expedition. Ixvii

records, sowing seeds, building cairns, and marking trees, at as many
points as possible consistently with your various other duties,

With reference to financial subjects, you will be furnished with a
letter of authority to give orders on the Treasurer for the payment of
any stores or their transport, cattle, sheep, or horses, you may re-
quire, and you will not fail to furnish the Treasurer from time to
time with detailed accounts of the articles for which you have given
such orders in payment.

Each persomof the party will be allowed to give authority for half
of his salary being paid into any bank, or to any person he may ap-
point to receive the same, provided a certificate is forwarded from
you to the effect that he has efficiently discharged his duty.

The Committee requests that you will make arrangements for an
exact account being taken of the stores, and their expenditure, by the
person you place in charge of them.

The Committee also requests that you would address all your
communications on subjects connected with the Exploration to the
Hon, Secretary ; and that all persons acting with you, should forward
their communications on the same subject through you.

You will cause full reports to be furnished by your officers on any
subject of interest, and forward them to Melbourne as often as may
be practicable without retarding the progress of the Expedition.

The Committee has caused the enclosed set of instructions to be
drawn up, having relation to each department of science, and you are
requested to hand each of the gentlemen a copy of the part more
particularly relating to his department.—I have the honor to be, Sir,
your most obedient servant, ,

(Signed) JoHN Macapam, M.D., Hon See.,
EC.RSV. .

Lo

Ixvill Instruction to Scientific Observers, &c.,

INSTRUCTIONS FURNISHED TO SCIENTIFIC OBSERVERS
ATTACHED TO THE VICTORIAN EXPLORING EX-
PEDITION — SURVEYOR, ASTRONOMER, METEOR. -
OLOGIST, GEOLOGIST, MINERALOGIST, ZOOLOGIST,
AND BOTANIST.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE SURVEYOR, ASTRONOMICAL’ AND METEOR-
OLOGICAL OBSERVER.

1. Every opportunity should be taken to ascertain the geographical
position of the party, referring it to some well marked point, as
offered by an easily recognizable mountain, the junction of rivers,
creeks, &c., &e.

2. This should be done by astronomical observations, as well as
by dead reckoning.

The dead reckoning always to commence with the last good, reliable
astronomical observations made.

3. For determining the Latitude, the different methods to be
chosen depend entirely upon circumstances, and it is only mentioned
here that observations on sun, moon, and stars will have to be used.

4, The determination of the Longitude should be effected by lunar
distances ; if with stars, eastern and western distances should inva-
riably be taken when possible, and the longitude should be derived
from both sets. These observations, as well as those on latitude,
should always be reduced immediately after the observations, or at
least as soon after as possible. The longitude should further be
ascertained whenever an opportunity occurs by occultation of stars,
by eclipses of the sun, moon, and Jupiter’s satellites. There is no
necessity, however, for reducing these observations while on the
journey, as it would be impossible to devote that amount of care to
this work without interfering with the more essential work, and
which would be desirable; and the original observations should,
as early as possible, be clearly copied with ink, in a book, with every
fact necessary for the subsequent reduction.

5, All astronomical phenomena of particular interest should be
observed, if the means at the disposal of the astronomer do admit
of such observation, and if these should not interfere with the ge-
neral progress of the Expedition.

6. The variations of the Compass must be observed as often as
circumstances permit.

ey
Victorian Exploring Expedition. Ixix

7. Observations on the Zodiacal Light may be made with great
facility and advantage for science. The limits of the phenomenon
should be traced upon a good map of stars, and afterwards taken
from it and noted in a note-book.

8. A good look out should be kept for Meteors ; the declination
and right ascension of the beginning and end of their courses, with
exact time and accompanying circumstances, should be noted. Par-
ticular attention should be paid to meteors near the Zodiac.

9. Wherever a permanent camp is to be erected, a systematic
registration on meteorology should at once be carried on. The hours
of registration are to be as numerous as possible. The hours 6 a.m.,
9 am., 3 p.m., and 9 p.m. being obligatory. The registrations
should extend over the following elements :—--

Pressure of air, observed with the mercurial barometer, and, in
cease of an accident happening to the instrument, then with the best
aneroid in the camp. The aneroids should be compared with the
mercurial barometer whenever they are to be taken out for taking
measurements of heights, or for conducting meteorological observa-
tions in a branch expedition. They ought to be compared again as
soon as they are returned to the main camp.

The aneroids to be observed in a horizontal position.

In the ease of measurements of heights, Lamont’s hypsometrical
tables should be used.

Temperature of air and evaporation are to be observed with Munich
hygrometer, in the large portable meteorological stand.

Direction and force of wind, by the astronomical meridian, and by
Beaufort’s notations.

Amount and form of clouds, and direction of the upper current.

Duration and intensity of rain, dew, hail, &c. ; solar radiation and
terrestrial radiation.

An exact register should be kept on all remarkable phenomena in
meteorology, as whirlwinds, storms, thunderstorms, mirage, refrac-
tion, twinkling of stars, &c., &e.

10. While travelling, the aneroids and the small hygrometer
should be easily accessible, so that without any delay the observa-
tions can be made at the hours above mentioned, such observations
to be used afterwards for computing the height of the ground passed
over,

The temperature of rivers, creeks, lakes, and wells should be
observed on the surface, and with the help of the sounding thermometer
on the bottom. Should gases arise from the depth, they should be
caught in small glasses prepared for the purpose, in order to have
them analysed afterwards.

11. Particular attention should be paid to the direction of the
flights of birds.

_ 12. Magnetical observations, in addition to the determination of
the variation of the compass, should be carried out whenever an

Ixx Instructions to Scientific Observers, &c.,

opportunity offers, though without interfering with the main object
of the Expedition.

13. The work connected with the topographical survey requires
hardly any further remarks, but that everything should be done as
minutely and accurately as possible, and that all more strictly called
scientific observations should be subordinate to the mapping of the
country.

GEOLOGICAL, MINERALOGICAL, AND NATURAL HISTORY
OBSERVER.

GEOLOGY.

Diary to be kept regularly, and all observations made during the
day to be entered before the next day, and as soon as possible after
the camp is pitched for the night, and the necessary duties connected
with camping, attention to stock, &., are completed. This to be, in
in all cases, determined by the Leader.

General Heads of Diary—

1. Distance and course travelled.

2. Number, character, distance apart, and general trend or fall of
all watercourses or drainage channels crossed.

3. Quality of water, if any, in such courses or channels. ‘To ascer-
tain the nature of the salts in saline or other mineral waters, a
certain quantity might be evaporated, and the deposited matter col-
lected for chemical examination.

4, Mode of occurrence of water: springs, lakes, pools, or running
streams, with average depth of ditto.

5. Indications relative to probable permanence or otherwise of
ditto, also of periodical floods.

6. Geological, physical, and mineral character of the banks and
beds of streams, lakes, &c., and also of the intervening and adjacent
country. If composed of tertiary deposits of mud, clay, sand, or
gravel, note nature of such, whether stratified or irregular accumula-
tions, also mineral character, stating the nature and relative propor-
tions of the materials, whether limestone, sandstone, quartz rock,
quartz, or other rock fragments, sedimentary or igneous, or much
waterworn. If composed « of removed rocks, state probable geological
age of such ; if stratified and a ek in situ, average direction
and angle of dip (noted thus: D. N. 10° E. 15°), also probable thick-
ness and relative geological position of different formations (con-
formable or otherwise) of igneous rocks, whether intrusive or
contemporaneous. .

7. Indications or presence of organic remains to be carefully
sought for and noted, also of mineral veins, coal seams, lignite beds,
&c. ; date and locality of such researches, with the time so occupied
to be stated,

Victorian Exploring Expedition. Ixxi

MINERALOGY AND FOSSILS.

&. Specimens: rock, minerals, and fossils. All specimens to be
numbered consecutively, and entered with a corresponding number in
a book kept for that purpose, with the locality and date of collection,
and a short description of each. The numbers also to be entered in
the diary, on the day of collection (thus: June 15, 1860, specimens
1 to 20, stating whether rock, mineral, or fossil).

9. As geological specimens are difficult to transport, owing to their
weighty character, it is desirable that only such as are new or doubt-
ful should be collected, and these should be as small as possible for
the purpose of examination and recognition ; also that whenever an
accurate description, or sketch, or both can be made to answer, they
should be resorted to in preference to adding unnecessarily to the
bulk and weight of the collection.

In all cases the gross weight of the specimens that can be taken,
must be subject to the approval and control of the leader.

10. Rock specimens should in all cases be abandoned in favor of
either minerals, fossils, or recent natural history specimens.

11. All specimens that it may be found necessary or deemed ex-
pedient to abandon, should be marked off in the catalogue, and the
date and cause for their being so abandoned stated.

If fossil or recent natural history, sketches of them should, if
possible, be retained.

MAPS,

12. A tracing of the route, as laid down by the Surveyor, should be
furnished daily, if possible, to the geological and other scientific
officers, to enable them to mark the approximate position of their
observations. ‘To effect this rapidly, the daily observations in the
journal should be numbered, and a corresponding number placed on
the map at the point where the observation was made, or to which it
refers.

Boundaries of different rocks or geological formations crossed on
the line of route, should be marked on the map.

SKETCHES.

13. The observations, whenever practicable, should be copiously
illustrated by sketches, with the number of the specimen or observa-
tion in the journal to which they refer attached.

A sketch of each camp and its environs should, if possible, be
made before quitting it.

Sketches of all remarkable geological sections are desirable, also
outline views of mountain ranges, remarkable hills, and other physi-
cal features on either side of the line of route; also of all objects of
natural history and natives (aborigines).

xxii Instructions to Scientific Observers, &c.,

14. All views should be numbered and dated with the time of
day, the position whence they were taken marked on the map, and
the compass bearing, and estimated distance given of the extreme
points embraced in each.

ZOOLOGY.

The Zoologist, in addition to all general observations which he may
be able to make on all classes of animals that may occur to him,
illustrated by sketches, is particularly required to ascertain, when
possible, the fishes, shells, or articulata occurring in any stagnant or
running waters met with, as these are of the highest interest in con-
nection with questions of the geographical distribution of animals.

No duplicate specimens that might encumber the party need be
collected. Of fossil animals, if any should be noted, it would be
very desirable tossecure characteristic specimens. The larger fishes
may be skinned, by the removal of one-half of the fish, leaving the
fins of the mid-line perfect ; if then washed with solution of corrosive
sublimate in spirit, the specimen can be packed flat between papers
without injury.

The soft Annelida and small Crustacea, as well as the soft parts of
Mollusca, should be inclused in vessels of spirits, the specimens
separated by portions of linen cloth to prevent their being injured by
shaking. Paper labels, written with black lead pencil, will remain
uninjured with specimens so packed. As a general rule, every
specimen collected should receive one of a consecutive series of num-

bers (irrespective of the natural series of the objects), by which it

should be indicated in the journal of the day, in which all particulars
observed about it or illustrative sketches should appear.

In case a specimen of actually or doubtfully the same species
be obtained for the second or third time, at some subsequent dates
from its first entry in the journal, there is no objection to its receiv-
ing a new number in connection with any additional observations
which may be made, in cases where loss of time would result from
endeavouring to ascertain the first number applied to the series.

Of Mammalia, the nocturnal ones, as bats, and the small murine
forms, are the most interesting, and should receive particular attention.

No opportunity should be lost to obtain through the officer in
charge of depdts, or through reconnoitering parties, additional
specimens of rocks, fossils, minerals, and natural history.

It will be of vast importance to ascertain, as extensively as possible,
what relation the vegetation bears to its geological formation,

BOTANICAL OBSERVER.

For the purpose of elucidating to the fullest extent the phytology
of any part of Australia to be explor ed by the Victorian expedition,

eo

Victorian Exploring Expedition. [xxiii

it is recommended that the Botanist attached to the caravan should
keep a diary, in which the principal botanical features of the country
should be noted, and into which any plant, either remarkable
or observed for the first time, should be introduced under the
same number or designation by which it is distinguished in the
herbarium.

To the specimens which will be collected, and which should be
pressed into paper always immediately, and dried as speedily as cireum-
stances will permit, a label should be fixed, containing a note of the
day of collecting, the habitat of the plant, the soil of the locality,
the color and perhaps odour of the flower, the nature of the bark and
of the wood of any arboreous species, the size of the plants, and any
other characteristics which cannot be derived from the examination
of the dried specimens.

These, when dried, it will be desirable should be well secured
against pressure and moisture, and the thus formed :collections should
be forwarded to the Secretary of the Exploration Committee, always
at the very earliest opportunity afforded for transmission.

To such selections of botanical specimens might be added any
well matured seeds collected on the journey, which should either be
numbered corresponding to the specimens of the herbarium, or be
accompanied by leaves, flowers, and seed-vessels, for the purpose of
recognizing the species.

Samples of gums, resins, barks, and any other vegetable substances,
likely to be of technical, or economical, or medicinal use, should be
gathered and labelled in such a manner as to facilitate specific deter-
mination.

No opportunity should be lost to obtain through the officer in
charge of depéts, or through reconnoitering parties, additional spe-
cimens of plants and seeds.

Particular attention is directed to the necessity of closely ex-
amining the Pandani and Palms which are likely to be met with
within the tropics ; and since it will be difficult to procure the large
fruits of the former, and since the determination of the species greatly
depends on the habit of the plants, it would be of great advantage
to have, through the artist of the expedition, sketches of the out-
lines of these rare trees secured, and the flowers and fruits fully
delineated.

It will be of vast importance to ascertain, as extensively as possible,
what relation the vegetation of the country bears to its geological
formation.

Of any plants suspected to have been deleterious to either horses
or dromedaries, such a quantity should be dried as will suffice for
chemical analysis, and any experiments to be instituted thereafter.

Of plants which may prove of utility for food or otherwise, or
which are drawn into use by the natives, more particularly, infor-
mation is sought,

Ixxiv Instructions to Scientific Observers, &c.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR SCIENTIFIC OBSERVERS.

Scientific observations or work that would cause hindrance, or other-
wise interfere with the progress or necessary work of the expedition,
never to be undertaken if contrary to the instructions of the Leader.

All specimens, journals, sketches, maps, or other documents, to be
exclusively the property of the Royal Society, on behalf of the
Government of Victoria; and on no pretence whatever are either
specimens or copies of the said documents to be given away, or
forwarded privately to any person, or even officialiy, except through
the Leader, although it is intended that each observer should, on
publication of the results of the expedition, receive the credit due to
him for his observations.

All scientific, or other documents, journals, &c., relating to the
expedition, to be at all times accessible to the Leader.

Victorian Exploring Expedition.

LIST OF ARTICLES AND

Ixxv

SERVICES,

With Rate and Amount ordered, supplied, or incurred by the GoverNMENT
STOREKEEPER on account of the VicrortAN EXPLorAvIOoN EXPEDITION,
classified under the several headings of—

[.—PROVISIONS.

1f.—ForAGE AND Foop FoR CAMELS AND HorRsEs.

III.—Srores.

I1V.—Mepiciyes aNnD MepicaL Comrorts (including Instruments
and Veterinary Medicines).

V.—SERVICES.
VI.— Horses.

I.—PROVISIONS.

Afticle.

Pemican ... '

Salt Pork, without bone
Bacon :

Meat Biscuit

Potted Meats
Preserved Mutton ...

Preserved Vegetables

Coffee, in tins
Chocolate... a
Salt ts te
Soap sa
Tobacco ...
Ghee, or Clarified Butter
Butter, fresh
Captains’ Biscuits ...
Lime Juice
Vinegar
Mustard .
Pepper...
Ginger (applied for by J Mr.
Bourke, telegram 28th Aug.)
. Dried Apples ie
Raisins
Currants ...
Dates aes
Sperm Candles...
Rations, 6 men, August 2 to)
20th, inclusive
Rations, 4 men, August 7 to
20th, inclusive
Tea (for Asiatics)

yreg eho

-—— :

Total amount for Provisions..,

Quantity. Rate. Amount
320 Ib 1/3 L200; OF .0
600 ,, 1/3 37 10 O
400 ,, 0/9 30 0 0

1000 ,, 1/3 jor On
LOV;; 1/6 015 0
60 ,, : ay 310 0

4 @ 1/13
144 ,, G0 @ 1/4 814 6

LOO; 3; 21/6 # 100 tb 40) 2On6

2500 ,, 0/4 4113 4

3000 ,, 0/43 29) a G

400 ,, 3/0 60 0 0

50 ,, 1/4 3.6 8

40 ,, 2/0 4 0 0
200 ,, 0/13 aye)
200 ,, 0/5 43 4
250 ,, 3/8 45 16 8
993 5; 3/0 1485 19 0

LOY; 2/6 LOO
200 , 0/6 oF 0720

20 callons 4/0 40 0

OMY, 5 2/0 1 OPO

70 tb 1/0 310 0
40 ,, 0/9 110 0

20"), ae 2 0 0
100 ,, 1/0 3 OF.0

50 ,, 0/8 113 4

SOs, 0/9 Ll ie6
fst) 1/0 9° 9 0
150 ,, 1/9 13, 2 6
114 rations 0/8} 43 1

BOT tis, 0/8? 2 0 10

10 tb 3/0 11050

|

i paeeTe Be.8

Ixxvi

List of Articles and Services,

IIl.—FORAGE AND FOOD FOR CAMELS AND HORSES..

Article.
Oatmeal (camels)...
Potatoes 55
Flour

Hay, from Govt. stores (camels
and horses) Be
Oats
Bran do. do.
Straw do. dower
Hay, from Experimental Farm
(camels and horses)
Straw do: do.
Mangold do. dork:
Oats, purchased from C. Steed-
man, on emergency

do. do.

Total for Forage, &e.

| Quantity.

IlI.—STORES.

Rate.

0/4
12/6 P cwt.
21/6 8 100 Tb

various

£5 12/6 P ton
222) 105)
£310/_;,

5/3 ¥ bushel

Article.

Half-hose, worsted do.
Stable Forks
Barrow (wheel)
Shovels
Brooms and Handles
Brushes (for camels)
Hobbles dose <2: |
American Tub, large \
Axe (American) and Handle !
Canvas (for repairs of tents,
Royal Park)
Butchers’ Knives, large {
Camp Kettles, 8-quart |
Pannicans, tin
Firewood .. J
Padlocks (for camels’ trunks)
Hone, with case oe &e. :)
Stationer y Cabinet..
Stationery, comprising drawing
and writing mater ials, asstd.

Blankets (for Asiatics) ...
Pilot Coats, coarse do. <p
Jumpers do. ost
Trowsers do. PS
Socks do. ae
Boots do. co
Flannel Shirts do. an

)

Quantity.

16 pairs
8
8
8 pairs
8 do.
8 do.
8

16 pairs
3
1
y4
3

18

30 pairs
1

78 yards

yreg [eAoxy ye osn 10,7

Cnw

6 tons

— =

es]
t=)
ot
oO

|

Doe
wo
N&
l=)

NER RE LOS
: ERR a
DOWAW GS w

4/3
1/93
7/6

e--

Amount.

£18 10
117
G9

Amount,

(ar
—
ae)

4
0
10
12
9
16
14
18
if
10
8
5

15

, : _
Coowoocw SOSorQconocorwroRNS

—
SOnITR ON Ot 0 SO or

yoals
wo

34 16

alo coo SOM com

ecosoeoocenso woooReOoanmoonooose

or

Victorian Exploring Expedition. Ixxvil

STORES—continued.

Article. Quantity. Rate. Amount.

Colt’s Revolvers, navy size,

with cases and belts, complete 19 Various £114 0 0
Double-barrel Guns, withslings 10 a 62 0 0
Rifles, Carbine... 8 £15 120 0 0
Conical Balls, Shot, and Slugs,

to match gun... ; 200 Tb 6 8 4
Percussion Caps, assorted ... Bi = 2.06
Gunpowder, coarse grained ... 50 Ib 3/6 § 15740
Cartridges te =e 200 10/ # 100 L OA8
Wadding, Ely’s... 5000 5/ # 1000 1, 5:0

4 @ 3/6
Powder Flasks... § 24 aoe ll 40
Shot Pouches be se 10 6/6 5 0
Nipples, assorted ... 4 dozen 9/0 116 0
Gunsmiths’ Tools, complete

(selected by Mr. eal ae. i 35 4 0

Water Bags, large .. : 60 67/6 202 10 0

Do. small .. = 30 25/0 37 10 0
Leather Buckets... ais 5 13/0 3 5 0
Canvas do. 30 8/0 12-0 0
Saddles, complete, bush fitted 15 115/0 86 5 0
Bridles, do. 15 18/0 13 10 0
Pack Saddles (for horses and

bullocks) 10 92/6 46 5 0
Pack Saddles (for “camels) to

pattern... 12 115/0 69. 0,0
Riding Saddles do. do... . 6 155/0 46 10 0

30 @ 8/0
Pads do. do... 60 1| 30 @ 18/0 39) 0.0
Saddle Cloths do. du;..: 30 32/6 4815 0
Pack Cloths do. dor. 30 Whe 9317 G6
Head Stalls es ae 20 6/0 6 Ond
Dias 20 @ 3/0 3.0 0
Hobbles (horse)... 2A 2 pairs 12 @ 3/0 116 0

Do. (bullock) ... = 10 do. 5/0 210 0

Do. (camels) ... Be 20 do. 7/6 100
Spurs Ps. a ey 20 do. 4/6 410 0
Stirrup Trons uy, Sen 20 do. 4/6 410 0
Stirrup Leathers... 20 do. 5/0 5.0 (0
Saddle Girths (3 pairs extra

each saddle) ove 45 do. 3/0 615 0
Saddle Straps g oe 500 0/6 1210 0
Halters (for camels) 2s. 30 9/0 13 10 O
Check String (for camels)... 30 tb 1/0 110 0
Whip Cord, “fine Pas ilar? 2/6 Teh yee &
Oeniale Shoes, shod with iron

and lined with felt (M‘Far-

land) ... 80 sets 30/0 120 0 O
Camels’ Shoes (Ford Brothers) 15 do. 42/0 3110 0
Dandriff Brushes ... 12 2/6 T10% 0
Curry Combs wat Ba 72. 0/11 011 0
Water Brushes ame s 12 3/6 2920
Mane Combs 7” ies 6 | 0/5 026

xxviii

List of Articles and Services,

STORES—conitinued.

Article.

Clipping Scissors

Clipping Combs : ie

Canvas Packing Bags, Straps,
Handles, &c., complete

Canvas Water-buckets

Leather do.

Saddle Cruppers

Leather Straps, strong

Waggon ae Pole

‘leading o

Halters’ Web ;

Saddle Cloths, best felt

Breastplates, with mar tingales

Saddle Serge bes

Collar Cloth as

Curled Horse Hair...

Waggon Hames (extra)

Snattle Bits do. fis

Soft Soap (for harness, &e.) ...

Tether Rope

Spur Rowels af

Waggon Driving Crops, with
kangaroo thongs.. Sse

Kangaroo Thongs (extra)

Saddle Cloths, Kersey ae

Carbine Buckets and Straps

Cushions (for waggons)

Pole Straps

Hame Straps x

Horse Rugs, with breast str aps

Surcingles aN at

Neck Straps

Despatch Bags

Saving Collars

Straps (for ae es

Saddle Cloth, felt .

Bridles, Harness

Tarpaulins (for camels), made
to order, with buckles, &e.—
well oiled : Be

Fryingpans

Gridirons...

Camp Ovens

Corkscrews

Tin Dishes, Pannicans,
Camp Kettles

Knives, Forks, and Spoons ...

Tron Dippers, large

Turkey Stone a

Branding Iron, V.E. over B.
(for marking trees)

Fish Hooks, assorted

and

Quantity, Rate. Amount
2 3/0 £0 6 0
2 0/8 01 4
20 21/0 21 0 0
10 13/0 610 6
12 15/6 9 60
15 3/0 25 0
60 2/0 6 6 0
6 1800 54 0 0
8 sets 120/0 48 0 0
18 1/0 018 0
15 12/6 9g SMG
15 21/0 1515 0
20 yards 3/6 310 0
20° do. 2/0 20 0

60 Tb 1/4 4 0 0
3 pairs 15/0 2 Oe NO
6 3/0 018 0
6 Tb 1/6 07°9""@

180 yards 0/3 2 Born
48 pairs 0/3 012 0
6 24/0 / Oe:
6 9/0 214 0
5 7/6 1 Tae
15 6/6 417 6
3 25/0 315 0
6 7/0 2 2 0

24 1/0 1.4 0
6 20/0 6 0 0
6 5/0 1-100
24. 5/6 612 0

3 @ 20/0
8 5 Gus 815 0

14 7/6 5 5 0
12 3/0 116 0
1 : 12/6 012 6
2 25/0 210 0

26 28/0 36 8 O
6 2/0 012 0
3 2/4 ae fae)
3, 77 tb | 18/0 ® ewt. 012 4
2 1/0 0 DaG
2 sets Various 6 6 6

50 of each Pn 10 18 3
12 1/0 012 0
3 Ib 1/8 0Sotew

pany |! ae 115 0

200 Various 015 0

Victorian Exploring Expedition. Ixxix

STOR ES—continued.

Article. Quantity. Rate. | Amount.
Fishing Lines st “ad 4 dozen 6/0 £1 4 0
Farriers’ Tools, complete Be 2 sets 95/6 911 0
Carpenters’ Tools ... Seid 1 set nes 2 8 0
Shovels, steel a. 6 5 e Blo fe ie 'O

Axes (Pick), double-headed,

and Handles “3 6 4/6 LaTaG0
Axes and Handles, American 12 6/9 ° 410
Axe Handles abies 12 1/6 018 0
Saws, hand - 5 5/0 1 5. 0
Do. cross-cut 1 oe 0 8 3
Tomahawks oe 6 4/6 1. JZ0
Spring-balance Scale, with
chain, 40 ib 3s ; 1 ae 010 6
Bells and Straps (for hor ses) 3 dozen | 34/0 ¥ doz. 5 210
Do. do. (bullocks) .. ee 156/0 # doz. 3 18.0
Nails and Spikes, assorted ... 30 Ib Bie Oh oe
Grindstone, small, with frame 1 310 0
Horse-shoe Nails, pointed, 6 Ib
P 1000.. - 56 ib 0/10 2.65.48
Matches, vesta.. see 40 boxes 1/10 3138 4
Do. lucifer... a. 3 gross 6/0 018 0
Fuses ee 1 ies 015 0
Tinder Boxes, with flint and
steel 8 1/0 1, 8140
Tailors’ Scissors... 6 pairs 2/0 012 0
Geologists’ Steel sie SIA 11
and 3 tb y 2 1/6 Qi «3 0
9
Knives, sporting oe 6 4 : isiek 3 2 0
Do. pocket, three blades 6 5/0 each 110 0
Do. _ butchers’ : 9 1/2 010 6
Flesh Hooks 2 ae 2 1/0 02 0
Billhooks, Switzbers 6 6/6 Tatton
Reaping Hooks 6 0/6 03 0
Beads (for natives) .. 2 tb 1/0 Or 2-0
Looking-glasses (for natives) _ 4 dozen | 3/0 8 dozen O12. 6
Do. late, with slide 6 6/0 116 0
Boatswain’s nistles 5c 5 3/0 015 O
Canvas Bags, numbered with
paint ... ae ids 30 pairs 25/0 ¥ pair 37 10 0
Canvas, &c. (for repairs of 1 bolt No. 1 | 5 710
bags, &e. ee x 1 ,, No. 4 .° Ms
Calico (for ditto)... oot 50 yards 1/0 DBO: 10
Rope and Twine, assorted ... 290 tb Various 718) 7d
Light Tents, to pattern ae 10 , @ 1325 538 1 0
Store Tents, 10 x 12 Bae 2 20 0 0
Camp Cots, to p: ay is 20 3 60 0 0
Litters hy 4 £5 20 0 0
Tent Pegs, large ... one 12 dozen | 5/6 ¥ dozen 38.6 0
Musket-holders ... Ane 20 2/ each 200
Canvas Bag ons | 1 2/0 bpd 8

Ixxx List of Articles and Services,

STORES—continued.

Article.

Trowsers, serge

Do. canvas ...

Do. moleskin, lined
Shirts, flannel

Do. serge, blue ...

Boots Ce
Cabbage- tree Hats, to order..
Blankets ... nee
Towels...
Diaper (forspare toweling, &e. )
Flannel _— (for repairs)

Blue Serge do.
Moleskin do.
Thread do.

Metal Buttons do.

Rugs, heavy fawn (for ponchos)
and making same a

Air Bed (to hold tna

Air Pillows y

Cork Mattress eh

Waterproof Cloth ... ia

Green Gossamer (for veils) ...

Goggles, with cases se

Canvas Flour Bags..

Oak Camp Stools. ... eS
Oak Camp Tables, cedar top

Field Glasses

Rockets ...
Blue Lights
Chinese : Gong ite
Blocks—1 double, 2 2 2 sinele aa:
Files, hand saw

Do. cross-cut saw

American Waggons

Tools and Materials for repairs
(for blacksmith), as selected

Soldering Irons eh

Solder...

Atinell x6x, ae Sx 10

Resin cot

Borax

Palms

Needles, sewing & roping

Twine do.
Sail Hooks

Fid, small

Gtabber «-. )
Saddlers’ Tools, &e. (for epee
Anti-friction Grease

Harness Oil

of
|
.
!
|
|

$7194 Sut
-pueul 107

Quantity. Rate Amount
40 pairs 12/6 £25 0
80 do. 5/9 23 0
40 do. 13/6 27° 0
80 12/6 50 0
40 12/6 25+ 0
80 pairs 25/0 100 0
30 20/0 30.0
40 pairs 16/6 30 (0
40 1/2 2 6
100 yards 2/0 10 0
100 ‘do. 2/0 10 0
100 do. 1/6 7710
50° do. 1/9 4 °7
6 Ib 3/4 10
12 dozen Mie 0 2
20 20/0 20 0
ne 10/0 each “10 =O
i ss 3 0
6 12/6 3 15
1 oe 1 10
180 yards 4/6 40 10
45 do. 1/0 25
2 dozen | 24/ dozen 2S
50 4/0 10 0
2 12/6 1 5
1 eae i |
a 1 @ 70/0 x
z iG fa ar
50 6/0 each 15 0
3 dozen | 25/0 dozen 3 15
1 ie 4 10
3 : Bie ih
1 dozen Ba 0S
4 do. 6/0 0 3

‘ 2 @ £45 rs
3 eee 145 0
Ss ae 258
2 3/6 pe yi
8 tb 1/3 0 10
12 sheets 0/33 0 3
4 Tb 14/0 P ewt. 0 0
2, 1/6 0 3
6 3/6 1 a
12 dozen ell doz. @ 1/6) (ap

» @3/0

48 tb 1/3 3.0
6 0/4 0 2
1 Soc 0 3
u 0 2
As selected 418
100 tb 2 2
2 gallons eg

_
ocoococ co Seeoscooeooscececooaoscowmoosesooecscnc

—

SAHHSSOCS Ww SORDRSSS

Victorian Exploring Expedition. Ixxx1

STO RES—continued.

Article. ‘ Quantity. Rate, Amount.’

Silver Watches, strong, with

extra glasses, keys, &c., &e. 2 £7 16/0 each} £1512 0
Water Bottles (procured in

Sydney) 4 12 6/6 each 318 0
Leather (for hobbles, bee) eee 8 hides 45/0 / 18 0 0
Total amount for Stores... ase or £2608 8 5

IV.— MEDICINES AND MEDICAL COMFORTS..,

(Including Instruments and Veterinary Medicines. )

Article. Quantity. | Rate. Amount.

Drugs, miscellaneous, selected
by Dr. Beckler at Messrs.
E. and M. Keogh’s, Latrobe-

street west . Fs see £49 17 11

Medical Comforts—Arrowroot 6 tb 1/0 07 GO

Do. Brandy .. 4 gallons | 25/6 ¥ gallon a Ze O
INSTRUMENTS

Selected by Dr. Beckler.

Surgeon’s Field Case ‘3 1 cate 12 12 0
Cupping Apparatus, complete 1 nae 615 0
Syringes, metal me 6 1/0 060
Syringe, enema Li = 013 0
Leg Splints 2 sets 6/0 012 0
Arm do. 2 do 6/0 012 0
Dressing Forceps 1 ive i ee
Surgical Needles 24 0/6 012 0
Silver Probe, grooved 1 be eS ag
Caustic-holder 1 “ec Om5e 0
Blunt Hooks : 2 7/6 015 0
Spatula (Bolus Knife) 1 a hig
Scales and Weights 1 set 0 5 0
Veterinary Instruments and

Medicines (for camels), as

selected by Mr. Landells . a ce 52 111
Rum (for camels) ... ¢ 60 gallons i 48 0 0
Veterinary Instruments and

Medicines (for horses) bos sis ae 69 8 10
Pepper (for camels—applied

for by Mr. Burke, by tele-

gram from Swan Hill ks 20 th eH 015 0
Total for Medicines, &e. .... ot sy £249 11 2

Ixxxti

List of Articles and Services,

V.—SERVICES.

Name.

Alfred Ford

M ‘Gregor and M‘Naughton

W. and E. Grave
R. Taylor:

John Miscamble

W. Powell and Co.

Penal Department

From whom Purchased.

Robert M‘Farland

John Orr

James M ‘Conaghy

James Henderson and Co.

Particulars of Service.

220 nights’ Livery—Horses at
Artillery Hotel stables—6d.
per night

Lengthening and alteri ing Wag-
gons, and supplying spare
Axle Boxes, Bars, Poles, &c.,
&e.

Extra labour in covering and
banding 12 Tents... ee

Storage of Gram, &c., &c., in
private rooms at the Parlia-
ment Stables—July 7th,
August 25—7 weeks, at -£ I
per “week

Examination of Horses as to
soundness, Shoeing, and sup-
plying 4 spare sets of Shoes

Fittmg and supplying 45 sets
Shoes to Horses, 5s. # set..

Lampering 2 Horses

Fitting and supplying 60 sets
Horse Shoes aoe

Repairing Waggons..

Total for Services

VI.— HORSES.

Brand and Description.

Bay Horse, branded on near
shoulder RJC. over AA; on
neck § 51 %

Roan Horse, aged; brands not
stated ae +

1 Bay Horse, branded D on
near shoulder; white star on
forehead ne

Bay Horse; W near neck ; TW
near shoulder ; near hind foot
little white

Grey Horse; LM off shoulder

Bay Horse ; ‘TH do.

Bay Horse ; P near shoulder ;
stripe ; off hind foot white...

Amount.

Amount.

110 0 0

Victorian Exploring Expedition. Ixxxili

HORSES—continued.
From whom Purchased. | Brand and Description. Amount.
W. W. Treacy ... “ Chesnut Mare; JH near shoul-
der

Iron-grey Horse ; HH conjoined

near shoulder
White Horse; H near shoulder | £60 0 O
Robert S. Sturrach

William Dickenson

Brown Horse; no brand a 3410 0

Brown Horse; JK near shoul-
der; three white legs ; star
on forehead oz aoe 207 0F3 0

Charles Cock Bay Horse, draught ; no brands 50 0 O

John Wilson Bay Horse; A over M near
shoulder; black points... 20 0 0
William Manley Grey Horse; D near saddle ... 28 0 0

A. L. Blake Bay Horse; ? near shoulder;

white hind feet; 6 years old 50 0 O

Chestnut Horse; BI off neck;
blaze on face—(less £1, fee
to Veterinary Surgeon)... 31 0 0

Joseph Nihill

B. Hutchinson ... Grey Horse; M on near shoul-
: der; snip off near ear; 6
years old—(less £1 1s., fee to

Veterinary Surgeon) =f 48 19 0

Brown Horse; SS over M, ST
under, near shoulder; two
hind feet white
Brown Mare; N in circle near
shoulder “6: re 50 0 0

WW. Treacy: ...

Richard Edwards Brown Horse; ISB off shoul-

der; star on forehead; two

hind feet white ... oak 268 0.0
W. W. Treacy ... Brown Horse; B in circle near

neck and near shoulder... 30) OF 6
Bay Horse; OP near shoulder... 25° 0 0

Total for Horses... tite s0Ge Oa O

e . . . . . . . .
a . . . . . - . . rs .
. . Ps . . . . . rs .
4 43S ee ee ee See EE EE SE ESE eee ee Ee eae

Ixxxiv List of Articles and Services, &c.

VII.—In addition to the above, the Exploration Committee expended the

following on account of Exploring Expedition, viz. :—

Six Camels, @ £50... ae ia ma vee, | | COOD ORG
Books ies Ea xe ocr ode ous 019 6
Astronomical Instruments as aor one Nee 132 19 6
Chronometer Watch ... see oe ae Bes 42 0 0
£475 19 0 |
SUMMARY.

1 Provisions... tee a0 noe moo Peso ce)
2 Forage and Food for Camels and Horses Soc 108 1 6
3 Stores Jee lina ess Peis .. | 2608 8 5

4 Medicines and Medicinal Comforts (including ;
Instruments and Veterinary Medicines) ne 249 ll 2
5 Services Pe a 508 vee S00 158 4 0
6 Horses a ae aa 6 se 708 9 0
7 Sundries, supplied by Exploration Committee ... 475 19 0
Total me 506 .. [£4986 1 10

CONTENTS

OF FORMER AND PRESENT VOLUMES
OF THE
TRANSACTIONS OF THE VICTORIAN INSTITUTE;
OF THE
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA;
eee
PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF VICTORIA;

AND ULTIMATELY OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.

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oii «ch Mh BOF Sai aitat, 3 Teale Set ae
P ¥ maa ahem
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ye eas

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re Pr 2 ahs ar j ab Jon "he Jy fo Vr rents

WS ERAT PO MUBIMOY FOE © Cd Te sella
: . ! ‘ ie

tL ACN ree

ae

, APPENDEX, Lf.

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE VICTORIAN INSTITUTE—1854 AND 1855.

PAG

Art. I. Inaugural Address on the ee of the al aL by
Mr. Justice BARRY... 1

Il. Observations on the Country near yas Torrens, by
FREDERICK SINNETT, Esq. is 15
_ IIL On Statistical Sanitary Processes, by W. ite ns, 20

IV. Description of Fifty New Victorian Eee by Dr.
FERDINAND MUELLER ... 28

V. On the Deterioration of Grain aa Plow, by Dr.
Maunp 46 48

VI. On Water Supply to the City of Metbourne, y M. B
Jackson, Esq., C.E.... 54

VIL. Loan for Public Works in Vietoria, by E. G. Wile,
Esa. ae 61

VIL. On the ‘Chase » a new Hadibedcs Fruit, by Dr. F.
MUELLER oe ae 67
IX. On the Mineral Waters of Banos, i Dr. ren ND Gs. 70

X. Gas and Gasworks, by A. K. pa Ese. OE.
HR As: sas 74
XI. On Phonetics, by W. Gil cao. mee fox “8 92
XII. On the Timber of Victoria, by Grorcr Houmes, Esq... 100

XIII. On Microscopic Investigation and ear ne by W.
3. Grepons, Esq. Ay 104

XIV. Description of Fifty New faikiaelian Plants by De

Frerp. MUELLER nt ; 114
XV. On the Water of the Plenty Bee ie Dr. M. AUND ... 156

XVI. On Gas and Gasworks, considered in relation to the

requirements and a ar of the be by A.
K. Smiru, Esq., C.E., ons y 145

XVII. On the Trussed Bridge at pen by E. Rae ARDSON,
Esq. : i 149

XVIII. On 7 Tattine Bridges, by] F. Burn Es@., rl LE, ees 154

A
Si

Arr. XIX.

Contents.

On Translation of ee a py SyDNEY Gib-

Bons, Esq. —... oc
. (On ae pene of tearing Wy A. K. ca
Esq., ee: es
PROCEEDINGS.
Preliminary Meeting, 15th June, 1854
Foundation of the Institute pec aa
General Meeting, 31st July, 1854 ...
Conversazione, 22nd September, 1854 oe
Ordinary Meeting, 26th September ,,
ay, $5 23rd October ,, a 0
As 53 28th November ,,
iF 56 23rd December ,,

General Meeting and Report of Half- yeaa sth March,
1855

Ofee y eee oth Al 1855..

Ordinary Meeting and Hones of IMtnalewaatene Con-

ference, 3rd May, 1855...

Ordinary Meeting, 7th June, 1855 ... oa, oA

Contents.

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Art. I.

LE,

Ill.

a's

we

WE.

Var

VIEL.

IX.

X.

XI.

XII.

XITl.

SOPHICAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA, 1855.

Inaugural Address of the President, Capratn CLARKE,
R.E., Surveyor-General, &e., &c.

Definitions of rare, or hitherto undescribed, Australian
Plants, collected within the boundaries of the Colony
and examined by Dr. FerpiINAND MUELLER .

On the comparative Value and Durability of the Build-
ing Materials in use in Melbourne, Py. Rosvert Brovck
Sy TH, Esa.

Definitions of rare, or hitherto eva hese aie
Plants, collected within the boundaries of the Colony
of Victori ia, and examined by Dr. Ferprnanpd MUEL-
LER (continued) de

Personal observations made in an excursion savant the
central parts of Victoria, including Mount Macedon,
Mclvor, and the Black Ranges, by Wm. BLan-
DOWSKI, Esq. ... evs

Original Rules and Tables, naapeaalt He cases of eatin
Ground in the Setting- out and Computation of Rail-
way Earthworks, by. CLEMENT Hopextnson, EsqQ.,
C.E., Survey Department "

On the Construction of an Instrument for aa era
the mean Temperature of any place, by Dr. Darcy..

Meteorological Observations at Bendigo, by Lupwic
BECKER, Esq., with a plate

On the Influence of Gravity on the Physical ‘condition
of the Moon’s surface, by BALFOUR STEWART, a =
with a plate

On the Adaption of the ae to en meters of ‘the Rays s
which emanate from ee by BaLrour STEWART,
Esq. see .

Dewngies Characters of new Alpine Plants, dul Con-
tinental Australia, by Dr. Ferprnanp MUELLER

On the Failure of the Yan Yean Reservoir, embracing
an examination of the Report of the Committee on the
Yan Yean Scheme, by Davin E. Wirkie, Esq., M.D.

The Meteorology of Melbourne, by Dr. E. Darcy

Ixxxix

PHILO-

1

24

34

92

95

96

lll
164

xe

Contents.

Art. XTV. On the probable Influence of Evaporation on the Quan-

tity of Water to be Supplied by the Reservoir at Yan
Yean, by Clement Hopexinson, Esq., C.E., sea!
Department, with a plate»

XV. Report of the Commissioners appointed pe the Phi.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XXII.
XXITI.

losophical Society to investigate the alleged insufti-
ciency of Supply for the Yan Yean Water Works,
by Dr. WixtH, and Messrs. F. AcHEson and F. C.
CHRISTY

On the Influence of the Physical ee & a Goucee
on the Climate, by R. BroucH SmyrTu, vee ., Mining
Engineer, with four plates =

A description of Fossil Animalcul in Primitive Rocks
from the Upper Yarra district, by Wint1am B1Lan-
powskI, Esq@., with a plate

Practical Remarks on Henge by @ntulte Hone-
KINSON, Esq., C.E. set

On the Primary Upheaval of the ind round melo
and the recent Origin of the Gypsum or Sulphate of
Lime on the Great Sw amp between Batman’s and
Emerald Hills, Flemington, Williamstown, and Mel-
bourne, illustrated by. a lar ee number of specimens
from the locality, by WiLtt1am BLANDOWSKI, eee, us
with two plates ie

. On what Data does the City of Monee ee for

an adequate Supply of Water from the Yan Yean
Reservoir? by Davin E. WixKtz, Esq.

. Remarks on the favorable Geological and Chemical

nature of the Principal Rocks and Soils of Victoria, in
reference to the production of Ordinary Serials and
Wine, by CLEMENT es a Pee C.E., Surv: °y
_ Department So . ;

Proceedings
The Philosophical ee

PAGE

Te ge

203

222

223

229

234

260

Contents. x¢cl

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE
PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF VICTORIA, 1856.

Vou. I.

PAGES

Anniversary Address of the President, the Hon. ANDREW
CLarKh, R.E., Surveyor-General of V ictoria, &¢. ... 1—10

Art. I. Ona Viviparous Fish, from Hobson’s Bay, i Lupwic
BeEcKER, Esq., with a plate A. 11—13

If. On a Sygnathus, from Hobson’s Bay, hy Burin
BEcKER, EsqQ., with a plate as 14

III. On the Age of the Animal and Vegetable ineabine of
Australia relatively to that of the rest of the world ;
and some remarks on the changes of this Land by
Upheavals, by Lupwic Becker, Esq., with a plate... 15—18

IV. Ona proposed Railway Pier, by FrEepERIcK ACHESON,
Esq., C.E., with a plate an 18—24

YV. Report II., of Wizi1am BLANDowsKI, Esq., to the iat
the Surveyor- General, on an Excursion to Frankston,
Balcomb’s Creek, Mount Martha, Port Phillip Heads,
and Cape Shank st i 24—37

VI. Observations on the Geology and Soil of the Gantry
adjacent to the Upper Murray, and also on the Pro-
ductive Capabilities of that portion of the territory of
Victoria, by Clement Hopexinson, Esq., C.E., &e.. si 50

VIL. Report IIL. of Wirt1AmM BLANDowskI, EsqQ., to the mee

the Surveyor-General, on an Excursion from King’s .
Station to Bass’ River, Phillip and French Islands... 50—67

VIII. On Irrigation, by F. C. Curisry, Esa. ive oo 67—70
IX. Some Observations on Primary Schools, by WILLIAM E.

Hearn, Esq., L.L.D., M.A., Professor of History and
Political Economy in the University of Melbourne... 70—S0

X. On the Importance of Sanitary Works for Towns, having
especial reference to Collingwood, with suggested
remedial Works for that district, by Tuomas E.

RAWLINSON, Esq., C.E . . 81—108
XT. On Motive Power in Victoria, cient Sidon
by FREDERICK ACHESON, Esq. ESA oS ae » LOS—127

X11, On Museums in Victoria, by Freperick M ‘Coy, Esq.,
F.G.S., Professor of Natural Science in the Univ ersity
of Melbourne, ke. awe te eee -» L2V—134

x¢eli Contents.

PAGES
Art. XIII. On the Phenomena of Hailstorms in Victoria, by R.
Broveu Smytu, Hsq., C.E., F.G.S., &e. ... . 135—138
XIV. Report on the Steps taken in th ot to provide a Tele.
scope for observing the Nebule of the Southern
Hemisphere, by Professor Witson, M.A., Professor of
Mathematics in the University of Melbourne, &e. ... 188—152

XV. Onthe Nest, Egg, and Young of the Lyre Bird (Menura

superba), by Lupwie Brecker, Esa. és 153--154

XVI. Onthe Tenacity of Life in the Platypus (Or ibe lynens
paradozus), by Lupwic Becker, Esq... 155—156

XVII. On Native Zinc, imbedded in Basalt, by Lapwe
Becker, Esq. ... 305 se ee «. 156—158
Proceedings, &e. ... oot ... 1-—XXXVI.
Report of the Council for the year 1856 ... XXXVi.*—xxxvil*

Balance Sheet to the end of 1856
Appendix “ot ate 2 ... -XXXVil, —XXXix.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Arr. I.

XII,

XIV.
XV

Contents.

x¢ciil

OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF VICTORIA, 1857.

Vou. IL.

On a new form of Propeller for Steam Ships, by Davip
E. Wizxtz, M.D., with three plates oe

. On the ‘‘ Lyre Bird” (Menura eile PB Jie Woop

Brriey, Esg., Gipps Land

. On the Phenomena attending an pibatibie Case é

Mirage, by Professor Wirsox, M.A., Melbourne Uni-
versity

. On the Cestracion Phillippi (Port en Shark), Trigo-

nia and Terebratula, of the Australian Seas, by Sizar
Extiorr, Esq. 5

. Onanew Mineral, from Meroe by R. eabved SmyTH,

Esq., C.E., E.G.S. fr

. On the Ocfoclinis Macleayana, 1 new Anetraltars Pine,

described by FERDINAND Muetier, M.D., Ph. D.,
F.R.G.S., Colonial Botanist of Victoria, with a plate...

. On the Murray River Cod, with particulars of experi-

ments instituted for introducing this Fish into the
Yarra Yarra, by Epwarp WILson, Esq.

. On the Supply of Water to the Town of Geelong, by Joun

Mitiar, Esq., C.E., F.S.A., &c., Engineer-i in-Chief
to the Geelong Water Commission ..

. On the Construction of an ataicit for spemibenine

the Dew Point, by R. Brover ar es C.E
F.G.S., with a plate

. Account of some new Australian Plants, by pene

Mueuuer, M.D., Ph. D., F.R.G.S., at with two
plates

. On the Tiemandiion of the British Saag. ‘Bird, by

Epwarp Wuson, Esq.

. On a Suggestion for a new Mode of Life Tasehen by

PROFESSOR Witson, M.A., Melbourne University

On a General Introduction of Useful Plants into Victoria,
by Ferpinanp Mvetier, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.G.S., &e.

On Railway Gradients, by Witt1am Austin ZEAL, Esa.

Recent Discoveries in Natural History on the Lower
Murray, by WILLIAM BLANDOWSKI, Esq.

PAGES
J—1Z
2—14
14—15
i by
17—19
20—22
23—34
34—61
61—12
62—77
77—88s
8S—92
93—109
109—124
, 124-137

XCiv Contents.

PAGES

Arr. XVI. On the Astronomy and Mythology of the Aborigines
of Victoria, by WILLIAM EDWARD STANBRIDGE, Esq. 137—140

XVII. On Extensive Infusoria Deposits in the Mallée Scrub,
near Swan Hill, on the Lower Murray River, in Vic-
toria; and on the presence of Fucoide in Silurian
Rocks, near Melbourne, by WILLIAM BLANDOWSKI,

Esq., with two plates... fee 141—146
XVIII. Observations on the Saw Fish, by Deon E. RAWuIn-
son, Esq., C.E. . 146—148

XIX. An Historical Review of fhe cone Dts of ‘hoagie
by Ferpinanp MueELier, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.G.S.,
&e., with two plates... ses . 148—168
XX. Observations on some Munananiiie’ Rocks, in South
Australia, by the Rev. Junttan EpmMonp Woops _ ... 168—176
Proceedings—Reports of Committees . 1,—-Xxill.
Minutes of the Meetings of the ieee. we XXX.—I.

li.—hiu.

Report of the Council for the year 1857

Balance Sheet to the end of 1857

Appendix .. tes

List of Nees as at 31st pees 1857

Laws of the Institute, adopted 25th September, 1857
List of the Officers of the Institute for 1857

... liv.—ly.
..-lvii,—I xii,

Contents.

XCV

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF VICTORIA, 1838.

Vou. Il.

Anniversary Address of the President, His Honour Sir Witt1am

Arr. L.

II.

Til.

XI,

ge a STAWELL, Knt., Chief Justice of Victoria,
> &e.

ae Tee determining ‘ve Rate of thie Upheaval of the
South Coast of the Australian Continent, Ry Lupwia
Becxer, Esq. aes

On the Reclamation and Cultivation of Batman’s Swamp,
by ALEXANDER KENNEDY SMITH, ae per Oss,
F.R.S.S.A., with a plate ... ch

On the Hirudo Australis, by Josep Bee. ae ;
President of the Pharmaceutical Society, Melbourne .

. Diagnostic Notes on New or Imperfectly-known we

lian Plants, by Dr. FErpInanD MUELLER

On the Weir Mallée (a Water-yielding Tree), the Dated
and Poreupine Grass of Australia, a JOHN Ser ye
Esa.

. A few Notes on Two Kinds of ree Leechs, by

Lupwie Brecker, Esq., with a plate

. On an Australian Bat, No. L,by Lupwac ee Td: Ks

with a plate

. Some hitherto Unknown Rusteation Plants déabribed by

Dr. FERDINAND MUELLER

. Mr. J. T. Gellibrand’s Memoranda of a Trip to Port

Phillip in 1836, addressed to His Excellency the Lieu-
tenant-Governor, from a MS. Copy presented to the
Philosophical Institute of Victori ia, by the Hon.
Captain CLARKE, R.E. as

. Remarks on a Tertiary Deposit in South Peace by

the Rev. Justan Epmunp Woops, Penola, South
Australia =

Description and System of Woaking of ae “Flagstaff
Observatory, Melbourne, by Proressor GEORGE NeEv-
MAYER, with three plates ... te ‘a

XII, Some Facts Illustrative of the Meteorology of August,

1858, in the Southern Hemisphere, by PROFESSOR
(FEORGE NEUMAYER, with four plates see

PACES

94—108

. 104—114

xevl Contents.

PAGES
Art, XIII. Index of the Plants described in the Transactions of

the Victorian Institute, of the Philosophical Society,

and of the Philosophical Institute of Victoria, ye Dr.
FERDINAND MUELLER ... » 115—120
Proceedings—Minutes of the Meetings of the Institute .-. 1,—XX1x,
Annual Report for 1858... BR oe ae “ie XXX.
Balance Sheet for 1858 ___... ene aa Fe wos ORIN
Reports of Committees is He os oo a XXXV.

List of Institutions, Learned Societies, &c., receiving copies of the
Transactions of the Institute in 1858 as noc ee xiii.
List of Members as at 31st December, 185S ... 405 ee xly.

Laws of the Institute de sah ee sis end of volume.

Contents.

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF VICTORIA, 1859.

Vou. IV.

Address of the President, FERDINAND MUELLER, Esq.,
Ph. D., M.D., F.R.G. and L.S., &e., &c., at the Anni-
versary ) Meeting

Arr. I. Observations on Donati’s Comet, Finds ee nant ren 12th
and Nov. 12th, 1858, by Lupwic BECKER, sak with
five plates oH

II. Some interesting facts Randad on Toieteesieal Observa-
tions, by A. C. GREG ORY, igs , F.R.G.S., &e., with
plate

III. On the Geological distribution of Gold, with “hela. re-
ference to some Auriferous Rocks in South iam
by P. NissEr, Esa.

IV. Notes on an Australian Bat, xa. are by a,
Becker, Esq., with a plate

V. Suggestions for a System of Drainage for Melbourne, ne
the Hon. Jonn Hoop, M.L.C. ...

VL. A description of the Silver Mines of the Cerro “6 Pasco,
and the Journey to them across the Andes, by Joun
Carrns, Esa. : wi os

VII. On some Domesticated Avitiinds of South America wil
would be useful in Victoria, by P. Nissrr, Esa.

VIII. On the First Technical Use of Gold by the Aborigines of
South America, with a description of the “Indian
Tombs, by P. Nisser, Esq., with a plate

IX. Improvements in Fundamental Ideas and Elementary
Theorems of Geometry, by Martin GARDINER, Esq.,C. E.

X. On some new Australian Polyzoa, by P. H. ia) a
VRAY, Esq., A.M., M.R.C.S., with a plate .. C

XI. On Lightning Gonauetars generally, with ae re-
ference to the Conductor attached to the tower and
spire of the Wesley seg ee po by SIZAR
Exxiorr, Esq.

XII. On Dove’s Law of the Theat of the Wind, as illus-
trated and supported by Observations made at the
Flagstaff Meteorological and Magnetic Observatory,
Melbourne, by Professor GeorGk NeumAyer, Govern-
ment Meteorologist and Director of the Magnetic Sur-
yey of Victoria ; with four plates ...

X¢vli

THE

PAGES

1—8

9—13

99—102

- 102—122

XCV1il Contents.

Art, XIII. An Attempt to Simplify and Generalise the Theory and
Practice of Railway Gane by WILLIAM Het ae *
C.E., with a plate :

XIV. On the Resources of Victoria and hee Developmensl
by Wiiu1AM E. Bryson, Esq., C.E wae con

XV. Notes on the Cheilostomatous Bees of Victoria and
other parts of Australia, by P. H. ea
A.M., M.R.C.S., with two plates .. =

XVI. On Some Tertiary Rocks at Portland Bag by Rev.
JuLIAN EpMuND Woops, Penola, South Australia

XVII. On a new Photo-Lithographic Process, by JoHNn WAL-
TER OSBORNE, EsqQ., with an illustrative map :

XVIII. Notes on the Plants collected during Mr. John Macdouall
Stuart’s recent Expedition into the North-West interior
of South Australia, by Dr. Ferpinanpd MUELLER

XIX. Notes of a recent personal visit to the unoccupied
Northern District of Queensland, by Witt1am Lock-
HART Morton, Hsq., with a Map of the District ...

XX. On a new application of Lever Power in the Extraction
of Teeth, by the Hon. Davin E. Wikre, M.D., M.L.C.,
with a platie be

XXI, Address of the President, al aes incu M. D.,
Ph. D., F.R.G. and LS. ., &c., &e., on the occasion of
Opening of the Hall of the Society ‘

PROCEEDINGS.

Minutes of the Meetings of the Institute _
Annual Report for 1859
Balance Sheet for 1859

PAGES

. 128—141

141—159

. 159—168

. 169-172

172—183

. 183—188

Bee te

. 200-—204

. 204--210

bya

Bp lie alba

xii.

Reports of Committees hie cee as lxiti.—Ixx.

List of Institutions, Learned Societies, &c., receiving
copies of the Tr ansactions of the Philosophical Institute

of Victoria for 1859 $4 He Ixxi. —Ixxiil.

List of the Members of the Institute, as at 3lst Decem-

ber, 1859 Pek ass wo. Exmya — ova

Appendices, contaming: 1. oie of a Committee of the
Institute on the ‘‘ RESOURCES OF THE CoLoNy oF VIC-
ToRIA.” 2. Report of a Public Meeting held in Mel-
bourne on the 23rd January, 1860, on the subject of
“ AUSTRALIAN EXPLORATION.” 3. REPRINT OF THE
ConTENTS OF FoRMER VOLUMES oF THE ‘‘ TRANSAC-

TIONS OF THE INSTITUTE” tes oe end of volume

Laws of the Institute

ditto

Contents. xcix

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL
SOCIETY OF VICTORIA, 1860.

Vou. V.

: PAGES
Inaugural Address of the President, His Excellency Sir Henry

Bark y, K.C.B., &e., &e. ae a 448 1—18
Arr. I. The “Three Sections,” the ‘“‘ Tangencies,” and a ‘‘ Loci

Problem” of Apollonius, and Porismatic Developments,

by Martin Garpryer, C.E. (formerly Science Scholar,

Queen’s College, Galway) ... 19—89

IL A Communication from the Rev. W. B. Crarke, of
Sydney, to His Excellency Sir Hznry Barty, K.C.B.,
&e., &e., President of the Royal Society of Victoria, on
Professor M‘Coy’s ‘‘ New Teeniopteris” from the Coal-*
bearing Rocks of the Cape Patterson District in par-
ticular, and on the Evidence bearing on the Question of
the Age of Australian Coal Beds in general.—Commu-
nicated to the Society by His Excellency THE Presmpent $9—95

Il. A Commentary on ‘“‘A Communication made by the Rev.
W. B. Crarxke to His Excellency Sir Henry BARKLy,
K.C.B., &e., &c., President of the Royal Society of
Victoria, on Professor M‘Coy’s ‘New Teniopteris,’
&e., &e.,” by Freperick M‘Coy, Esq., F.G.S., Hono-
rary Fellow of the Cambridge Philosophical Society,
Professor of the Natural Sciences in the University of
Melbourne, Government Palexontologist, and Director
of the National Museum ... ¥. dp ane

IV. The Conjugal Condition of the People of Victoria, con-
sidered in relation to Laws of Divorce, by Francis A.
CorBeETr, Esq. ... i we .. LOS—127

V. Remarks on the Physical Geography, Climate, &c., of the
Regions lying between the Rivers Lachlan and Darling,
by W. Locxnart Morton, Esq. ... ae ... 128—140

VI. On the Nest and Eggs of the Coach-whip Bird ( Psophodes
Crepitans, Gould), and of the White-fronted Epthianura
(Epthianura Albifrons, Gould), with some general
remarks on the Nidification of Australian Birds, by A.
DosrEE, Esq. ... as fs sos ... 141—144

VIL. On the Application of Galvanic Electricity to Practical
Astronomy, by R. J. L. Exxery, Esq., Government
Astronomer Ae ae wa w. 142—155

96—107

c Contents.

PAGES
Arr. VILL. Suggestions for the Introduction of Animals and Agri-
cultural Seeds into Victoria, ay W. LockHarr
Morton, Esq. ae rt . 153—157

IX. On a Deposit of Diatomacez at South Yarra, iw
JOHN Coates, Esq., M.R.C.S8.L., South Yarra ... 158—164

X. Manners and Customs of the Ad eias Natives, in
particular of the Port Lincoln District, By CHARLES

WILHELMI, Esq. ane : 164—2038
XI. Description of a New Species of Plamnatella, by P. i.
MacGinirvray, Hsq., A.M., M.R.C.S. ... . 203—204 «

XIL. Indigenous Fibrous Plants, by F. A. Corzperr, Esq. ... 205—208
XIII. Remarks on Professor M‘Coy’s Commentary, by Rev.

W. B. Cuarks, M.A., F.G.S., &c. wee . 209—214
XIV. Note on Rev. Mr. Clarke's aaa te &e., +» by Pro-
fessor M‘Coy ... nod B60 : . 215—217

XV. On the Multisection of an Angle by means of ris
Cycloid, by the Hon. D. E. Winx, M.D., M.L.C.,

with a plate ... i . 217220
PROCEEDINGS.

Minutes of the Meetings of the Society ore neg we 1. —XXV.

Annual Report for 1860 os acs ae set XXVI1.—XXxX.

Balance Sheet for 1860 aa ace Riss is XXX1,—XXXii.

Reports of Committees a 30 sie ae XXXiil.—xliy.

List of Institutions, Learned Societies, &c., receiving copies of the
Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria for 1860 xlv.—xlvii.
List of Members... Yo ee E ne .. li—Ixii.

APPENDICES, contaiimg—
1. Instructions to Members of wegen eae List. of

Stores, &e. Ixv.—Ixxxiv.
2. Reprints of the Contents of former Volumes of the
“« Transactions,” &c. AH HAS ved lxxxvil.—c.
Laws of the Institute “ oy eee BES end of volume

y}

MINUTES, &c,

COMMITTEE ON PRIZE ESSAYS.

MINUTES, &c.,
OF

COMMITTEE ON PRIZE ESSAYS.

Frrst MEFTING OF JUDGES APPOINTED TO REPORT ON THE
Prize Essays ror 1861.

November 7th, 1860.

Present—-Dr. Mueller (in the chair), Dr. Macadam, A, R. C. Sel-
wyn, Esq., C. J. Hodgson, Esq., J. W. Osborne, Esq.

For No. 1 (six essays)—Mr. Humffray (as chairman), Dr. Wilkie,
and Clement Hodgkinson, Esq.

For No. 2 (seven essays)—Mr. Hodgson (as chairman), Professor
McCoy, and R. H. Bland, Esq.

For No. 3 (five essays)—Mr. Selwyn (as chairman), W. Wade,
Esq., and Dr. Macadam.

For No. 4 (six essays) —Dr. Mueller (as chairman), J. W. Osborne,
Esq., and Dr. Davy.

Srconp MEETING oF JUDGES OF Prize Essays.

December 15th, 1860.

Present—Hon. J. B. Humffray, M.L.A. (in the chair), W. Wade,
Esq., Hon. Dr. Wilkie, M.L.C., Professor McCoy, J. H. Bland, Esq.,
J. W. Osborne, Esq., and Clement Hodgkinson, Esq.

4 Minutes, &c., of Committee

Professor McCoy sent in report of No. 2.

Dr. Mueller sent in report of No. 4.

The reports of Nos. 1 and 4 to be given in on Monday, before the
meeting of Council.

Meeting of Judges adjourned to Monday at 6:30, to receive reports
of sections 1 and 3

Tairp MEETING oF Prize Essay JUDGES.

December 19th, 1860.

Present—C. J. Hodgson, Esq. (in the chair), J. W. Osborne, Esq.,
W. Wade, Esq., Dr. Macadam, Hon. J. B. Humffray, Professor
McCoy, H. J. Bland, Esq.

A short discussion ensued prior to the adjudication of the prizes,
after which the following resolution was adopted :—

“That the names accompanying the mottos of the essays selected
as the best, be forwarded to the Government as the names of the
gentlemen entitled to the premiums and medals for the Prize Essays
of 1860; and that the Government be recommended to print the
Prize Essays for immediate distribution, at a price merely sufficient
to cover the necessary expense. Further—that the judges desire to
call the attention of the Government to the fact that the prize com-
petitors have not in all cases fully satisfied the expectations enter-
tained as to excellence, but that the judges have been induced to
exhibit, on this, the first occasion of awarding such prizes, a dispo-
sition to encourage the efforts of those (twenty-five in number) who
have devoted so much time and labor in responding to the invitation
of the Government.

Cuas. J. Hopeson, Chairman.

Cay |

on Prize Essays.

No. 1 P.E. ;

Royal Society of Victoria,

January 3rd, 1861.
Str,

I am instructed by the Council of the Royal Society to
inform you that the Report of the Judges on the Government Com-
petitive Essays for 1860 has been received.

The premium has been awarded in the case of each of the four
subjects previously submitted to and approved of by the Government.

The premium in each case is as originally arranged, £125 (say
one hundred and twenty-five pounds), with a medal.

The successful competitors are :—

Ist. On the Collection and Storage of Water—Frederick Acheson,
Esq., C.E., Crown Lands Department.

2nd. The Origin and Distribution of Quartz Veins, &e.
Rosalis, Esq., Ballarat.

3rd. Agriculture, &e.—W. Storey, Esq., Lygon-street, North Mel-
bourne.

4th. Manufactures in Victoria, &c.—Charles Mayes, Esq., C.E.,
Railway Department.

Henri

The medals to be awarded to these gentlemen are to be of silver;
and the Council, in accordance with the views of the Judges, has
decided that a silver medal should also be awarded to each of the four
second-class competitors.

The following is the Report of the Judges as set forth in the
resolution arrived at by them, and approved of by the Council, and
now forwarded to the Government for confirmation as already set
forth :—

“T am specially instructed to solicit the immediate attention of the
Government to the recommendation for the immediate publication of
the Prize Essays, and to state that the Council will be happy to
superintend the printing and production of the same.

“As to the mode of the distribution of the Prize Essays, the
Council would suggest that the money premiums should be publicly
bestowed, in the usual form of claims on the Treasury, on as early a
day as possible.

“Tn conclusion, and in reference to financial matters, I enclose the
accounts for the advertisements in newspapers, amounting in the

6 Minutes, §c., of Committee

ageregate to £50 17s. 2d., and the requests that these claims may be
immediately liquidated.

“ When this sum is added to the £500, viz., the four premiums of
£125 each, of the £600 voted for the Prize Essays of 1860, there
remains a balance of £49 2s. 10d. This balance would require
to be set aside at the Treasury to meet the cost of the eight medals,
and any other necessary expenses.

“Requesting an early reply, as the Council is anxious that the dis-
tribution of the rewards should take place without any unnecessary
delay,

“TJ have the honor to be, Sir,
“Your obedient servant,
(Signed) JoHN Macapam, M.D., Hon. Secretary.

“To the Hon. the Chief Secretary.”

Royal Society of Victoria,
Victoria Street, Melbourne, February 2, 1860.
SIR,

I am instructed by the Council of the Royal Society to
request your attention to my communication of the 3rd ultimo, and
to report to you the further additional expenditure, for which the
vouchers are enclosed :—

To advertising in Argus... = ...” | £ Paes
Do. Herald... ae ae 162%
Do. Age nit we 1 eee
£419 0
To eight Prize Medals, at 60s. meh i, Oe
£28 19 0
Postages, We. me oe 5A Be 1 “310
£30 210
To amount reported January 3rd... wee! © OOP IT ieee
£81 OF 9

Balance from Prizes retained for necessary
expenses re uid fi sc) 100 :Ohag
To expenses as above ee ay -.. 00) 20g

———.

Balance remaining, ... bi. ny ww lO. a

on Prize Essays. 7

I am further instructed to request your immediate attention to the
recommendation of the Council as to the printing of the Essays, and
the offer of the Council to superintend the preparation and production
of the same.

There are two of the Essays that were written by foreigners, which
will require very careful revision, and one on the subject of agricul-
ture, which contains much valuable information, but, as it was written
by a self-taught man, will require to be re-written before it can be
sent to the printer ; besides which, all of them will require careful
superintendence to insure their appearance as creditable literary com-
positions. It is, therefore, recommended that the services of a person
accustomed to correcting scientific authors’ manuscripts should be
obtained, and that the balance of £19 should be appropriated to that _
purpose.

I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your obedient Servant,

(Signed) JouN Macapam, M.D., Hon. Secretary.

(Copy.)
Royal Society of Victoria,
Victoria-street, Melbourne, May 1st, 1861.
Sir, :
I am instructed by the Council of the Royal Society to
request you to name the day and hour it will be most convenient to
you to receive a deputation from the Council on the subject of
printing the Prize Essays.
I have the honor to be, Sir,
Your obedient servant,

(Signed) JoHN Macapam, M.D., Hon. Secretary.
Hon. Richard Heales, M.L.A., Chief Secretary.

G.B. 843. Chief Secretary’s Office,

Melbourne, 3rd May, 1861.

Sir, '

In reply to your letter of the 1st instant, I have the honour
to inform you that the Chief Secretary will receive the deputation
from the Council on Monday next, at eleven o’clock.
I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
J. Moore.

The Honorary Secretary,

Royal Society of Victoria.

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LAWS:

LAWS

OF THE

mOYAL SOCIETY

VICBRORIN,

Melbourne:

PRINTED BY MASON & FIRTH, 51 & 53 FLINDERS LANE WEST.

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LAWS.

-

I. The Society shall be called “The Royal Society Name.
of Victoria.”

II. The Royal Society of Victoria is founded for Objects.
the advancement of science, literature, and art, with
especial reference to the development of the resources
of the country.

Ill. The Royal Society of Victoria shall consist of are
Members and Honorary Members, all of whom shall be bers.
elected by ballot.

IV. His Excellency the Governor of Victoria, for Patron.
the time being, shall be requested to be the Patron of
the Society.

V. There shall be a President, two Vice-Presi- Officers.
dents, a Treasurer, and a Secretary of the Society,
who, with twelve other members, shall constitute the
Council.

VI. The Council shall have the management of the Management.
affairs of the Society.

VII. The ordinary meetings of the Society shall Ordinary Meet-
be held every third week during the months from
March to November, inclusive.

VIII. In the first week in December there shall be General ana
a General Meeting to receive the report of the Council, oer
and in the first week in March there shall be the Anas
versary Meeting to elect the Officers of the Society for

the ensuing year.

6

IX. During the month of March there shall be an
Annual Conversazione of the Members of the Society,
after which the newly-elected President shall read an
address.

X. The President, the Vice-Presidents, the Trea-
surer, the Secretary, and six senior ordinary Memhers
of Council shall retire from office annually at the Anni-
versary Meeting. The officers, so retirmg, shall be
eligible for the same or any other offices then vacant.

XI. The President, the Vice-Presidents, the Trea-
surer, and the Secretary shall be separately elected by
ballot, in the above-named order, at the Anniversary
Meeting, and the six vacancies in the Council shall be
then filled up together by ballot. Those Members only
shall be eligible for any office, whose names, together
with those of their proposers and seconders, shall have
been posted in the Hall of the Society one clear week
before the Anniversary Meetmg. ‘The posting of a
name for any office shall he held a nomination for any
office, the election to which is to be subsequently held.

XII. No Member whose subscription is in arrear
shall take part in the election of Officers or other
business of the Meeting.

XIII. If any vacancy occur among the Officers,
notice thereof shall be imserted in the summons for the
next Meeting of the Society, and the vacancy shall be
then filled up by ballot.

XIV, The President shall take the Chair at Meet-
ings of the Society and of the Council, regulate and
keep order in all their proceedings, state questions and
propositions to the Meeting, report the result of ballots, —
introduce newly-elected Members, and carry into effect
the regulations of the Society. He shall deliver an
address at the Annual Conversazione of the Society.

In the absence of the President, the Chair shall be
taken by one of the Vice-Presidents, the Treasurer, or
an ordinary Member of Council.

XV. The Treasurer shall receive all money paid
to the Society, and shall deposit the same im the

ri

Colonial Bank of Australasia, to the credit of an
account opened in the name of the Royal Society of
Victoria, all cheques against which shall be signed by
himself and countersigned by the Secretary. He shall
make all payments ordered by the Council, on receiving
a written authority from the Chairman of the Meeting,
keep a detailed account of all receipts and expenditure,
prepare a balance sheet to be laid before the Council
and included in their Annual Report, and produce his
books if called on by the Council.

The Treasurer shall issue the notices required by
Rules XXV. and XXVI.

XVI. The Secretary shall conduct the correspon-
dence of the Society and of the Council, attend all
Meetings of the Society and of the Council, take
minutes of their proceedings, and enter them in the
proper books; he shall inscribe the names and ad-
dresses of all Members in a book to be kept for that
purpose, from which no name shall be erased except by
order of the Council; he shall issue notices of all Meet-
ings of the Society and of the Council, shall have the
custody of all papers of the Society, and, under the
direction of the Council, superintend the printing of the
Transactions of the Society, and the correction of the
Press.

He shall make all preparations for the Meetings of
the Society.

Duties of Secre-
tary.

XVII. The Council shall meet one week before Meetings of

every ordinary Meeting of the Society. Notices of
such meetings shall be sent to every Member at least
two days previously. No business shall be transacted
at any Meeting of the Council unless five members be
present. That any Member of Council (the President
excepted) absenting himself from three (3) consecutive
Ordinary Meetings of Council, without having obtained
leave of absence from the Council, shall be considered
to have vacated his office, and the election of an officer
to fill his place shall be proceeded with at the next
Ordinary Meeting of Members, in accordance with Law
XIII.

XVIII. The Seeretary shall call a Special Meeting

Council.

Special Meetings
of Council.

Annual Report.

Expulsion of
embers. _

Special General
eetings.

Election of
Members.

8

of Council on the authority of the President or of three
Members of Council. The notice of such meeting shall
specify the object for which it is called, and no other
business shall be entertained.

XIX. The Council shall annually prepare a report
of the proceedings of the Society during the past year,
embodying the balance sheet, duly audited, and a state-
ment of the present position of the Society. This
report shall be laid before the Society at the General
Meeting in December. No paper shall be read at this
meeting.

XX. If it shall come to the knowledge of the
Council that the conduct of a Member is injurious to
the character of the Society, and if two-thirds of the
whole Council shall be satisfied, after an opportunity of
defence has been afforded to the Member, that such is
the case, they shall request-him to resign, and in case of
his not domg so, may expel him from the Society.

In every case all proceedings shall be entered upon
the minutes.

XXI. The Council shall call a Special General
Meeting of the Society on receiving a requisition m
writing signed by twenty-four Members of the So-
ciety, specifying the purpose for which the meeting is
required ; no other business shall be entertained at such
meeting. Notice of such meeting, and the purpose for
which it is summoned, shall be sent to every Member at
least ten days before the meeting.

XXII. Every candidate for membership shall be
proposed and seconded by Members of the Society.
The name, the address, and the occupation of every
candidate, with the names of his proposer and of his
seconder, shall be communicated in writmmg to the Se-
eretary, and shall be read at a Meeting of Council, and
also at the followmg Meeting of the Society, and the
ballot shall take place at the next followmg ordinary
meeting of the Society. When the number of voters
in favour of any candidate shall be five times the number
of those against him, he shall be declared duly elected,
and not otherwise.

9

XXIII. Every newly-elected member shall, at the ag ae gee,
first meeting of the Society at which he may be pre-
sent, sign a declaration, in a book provided for that
purpose, that he will observe the laws of the Society.

XXIV. Gentlemen not resident in Victoria, who Honorary
are distinguished for their attamments in science, litera-
ture, or art, may be’ proposed for election as Honorary
Members, on the recommendation of an absolute ma-
jority of the Council. The election shall be conducted
in the same manner as that of ordinary Members,
but nine-tenths of the votes must be in favor of the

candidate.

XXV. Members of the Society, resident in Mel- Subscription.
bourne or within fifty miles thereof, shall pay two
guineas annually, and members residing beyond that
distance shall pay one guinea annually.. The subscrip-
tions shall be due on the 1st of January in every year,
and notice thereof shall be sent to every member dur-
ing the preceding December.

If the subscription of any member be not paid
before the Ist of March, his name shall be posted at
the next ordinary meeting of the Society, and at the
two following ones, should his subscription remain so
long unpaid; and a second notice shall be sent, inform-
ing him that this will be done.

After the third meeting, notice shall be sent to
him that he has ceased to be a Member of the Society,
but that he may be restored on furnishing in writing
to the Council a satisfactory reason for his delay, and
paying arrears within one month.

XXVI. Newly-elected members shall pay an en- Entrance Fee,

trance fee of two guineas, in addition to the subscrip.. “°

tion for the current year. Those elected after the Ist

of July shall pay only half of the subscription for the

current year. If the entrance fee and subscription be

not paid within one month of the notification of elee-

tion, a second notice shall be sent, and, if payment be

not made within one month from the second notice, the

election shall be void.

XXVII. Members may compound for all annual Life Members.

Duration of
Meetings.

Order of Busi-

ness.

Strangers.

Business to be
notified.

10.

subscriptions of the current and future years by payer
twenty guineas.

XXVIII. At the ordinary meetings of the So-
ciety the chair shall be taken punctually at half-past
seven o’clock, and shall be vacated not later than half-
past ten o’clock.

XXIX. At the ordinary meetings business shall be
transacted in the following order :—

Minutes of the preceding meeting to be read,

amended if incorrect, and confirmed.

New Members to enrol their names, and be in-

troduced.

Ballot for the election of new Members.

Vacancies among Officers, if any, to be filled up.

Business arising out of the minutes.

Communications from the Council.

Presents to be laid on the table, and acknowledged.

Motions, of which notice has been given, to be

considered.

Notices of motion for the next meeting to be

given in, and read by the Secretary.

Papers to be read.

No vote of thanks to any Member for his paper
shall be proposed.

Immediately after each paper, the Chairman shall
call on the Members for any remarks they may wish to
make, or questions they may wish to ask.

No Member shall speak more than once on any
paper, or for a longer period than five minutes, unless
called on by the Chairman, who, however, shall not
allow him to exceed ten minutes on the whole.

When no Member has any further questions to ask
or remarks to offer, the Chairman shall call on the
author for his reply to such questions and remarks,
which shall terminate the discussion.

XXX. No stranger shall speak at a meeting of
the Society, unless specially invited to do so by the
Chairman.

XXXI. No business shall be entertained at any
meeting which has not been inserted in the summons
for that meeting.

ll

XXXII. The Council may call additional meetings foe
whenever it may be deemed necessary.

XXXII. Every Member may introduce two Visitors.
visitors to the meetings of the Society by orders signed

by himself.

.

XXXIV. Members shall have the privilege of mee ened
reading before the Society papers containing accounts ar
of experiments, observations, and researches conducted
by themselves, on subjects within the scope of the
Society.

XXXY. Ifa member be unable to attend for the Or depute other
purpose of reading his paper, he may delegate to any
Member of the Society the reading thereof and his
right of reply. ;

XXXVI. Any Member desirous of reading a Members must
. 5 oa give notice of

paper shall give in writing to the Secretary, ten days {heir papers.
before the Meeting at which he desires it to be read,
its title and the time its reading will occupy.

The Secretary shall lay this communication before
the Council at its next meeting. Papers shall be read
in the order in which such notices are reccived by the
Secretary.

XXXVIT. The Council may permit a paper of a Papers by
nature similar to the above, not written by a Member "8
of the Society, to be read, if for any special reason it
shall be deemed desirable.

XXXVIII. Every paper read before the Society Papers shall be ©
7 - ; “ the property of
shall be the property thereof, and immediately after it the Institute.
has been read shall be delivered to the Secretary, and

shall remain in his custody.

XXXIX. At the Meeting of the Council next Council shall

. , . decide as to
following the reading of a paper, the Council shall pubiication, -
decide whether it shall appear in the Transactions of

the Society.

XL. No paper shall be published in the Transac- Ae legs
tions, which in the opinion of the Council, does not at

12

consist mainly of original matter as regards the facts
or the theories enunciated.

This rule shall not, however, be taken to exclude
the reading of papers at the Ordinary Meetings of
the Society, descriptive of recent discoveries or in-
ventions, or upon subjects of general scientific interest.

ote XLI. Should the Council feel a difficulty in decid-
Members. ing on the publication of a paper, the Council may refer

it to any member or members of the Society, who shall
report on the same.

peal tee Dane XLII. Should the Council decide not to publish
any paper, it shall be at once returned to the author.

Pee fo XLII. The Transactions of the Society shall be

half-yearly. | published in parts at intervals not exceeding six months.

hae ants Ot XLIV. No member shall publish or consent to the
publication.” publication of any paper read before the Society until
it shall have been, published in the Transactions, or

returned to him by the Council.

Ticone XLV. The author of any paper which the Council
of their papers. has decided to publish in the Transactions may have
any number of copies of his paper, not exceeding fifty,
on giving notice of his wish in writing to the Secretary,

with his paper, and on paying the extra cost of such copies.

Tate ey eo XLVI. Every member whose subscription is not
Transactions. in arrear, and every honorary member, is entitled to
receive one copy of the Transactions of the Society as
published. Newly-elected members shall, on payment
of their entrance-fee and subscription, receive a copy of

the volume of the transactions last published.

Property. XLVII. Every book, pamphlet, model, plan, draw-
ing, specimen, preparation, or collection presented to or
purchased by the Society, shall be placed in the museum
of the Society.

Museum. XLVIII. The museum shall be open to members
of the Society and the public at such times and under
such regulations as the Council may deem fit.

13

XLIX. The legal ownership of the property of Legalownership
the Society is vested in the President, the Vice-Presi- hae:
dents, and the Treasurer for the time being, i in trust for
the use of the Society ; but the Council shall have full
control over the expenditure of the funds and manage-
ment of the property of the Society.

L. Every Committee appomted by the Society Committees
af ae : ; lec
shall at its first Meeting elect a Chairman, who shal Yao ater
convene the Committee and bring up its report.

LI. All Committees and individuals to whom any Report before

ovember Ist.
work has been assigned by the Society shall present to
the Council, not later than the Ist of November in each
year, areport of the progress which has been made ;
and, in cases where grants of money for scientific pur-
poses have been entrusted to them, a statement of the
sums which have been expended and of the balance of

each grant which remains unexpended.

LII. Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific pur- Gtts expire.
poses from the funds of the Society shall expire on the
1st of November next following, unless it shall appear
by a report that the recommendations on which they
were granted have been acted on, or a continuation of
them be ordered by the Council.

LI1. In all cases where additional grants of money Additional
are made for the continuation of researches at the cost °
of the Society, the sum named shall be deemed to in-
clude as a part of the amount the specified balance
which may remain unpaid on the former grant for the
same object.

LIV. In grants of money to committees and indi- Personal ex-
viduals, the Society does not contemplate the payment Be paid.
of any personal expenses which may be incurred by the
members.

LY. The Chairman of each Committee shall be ihe omen
w grants,
person entitled to call on the Treasurer for such por- “
tion of the sum granted as may from time to time be
required,

14

Founinalioniat LVI. Every Committee shall cease to exist on the

day of meeting next followmg the Ist of November,
unless then re-appointed.

net LVIT. No new law or alteration or repeal of an

existing law shall be made, except at the General
Meeting in December, or at a special General Meeting
summoned for the purpose, as provided in Law XXL,
and in pursuance of notice given at the preceding
ordinary meeting of the Society.

Gres not DIG: LVIII. Should any circumstance arise not pro-
vided for in these laws, the Council is empowered to act
as may seem to be best for the interests of the Society.

SES RULE LIX. In order that the Members of the Society
prosecuting particular departments of science may have
opportunities of mecting and working together with
fewer formal restraints than are necessary at the ordinary
meetings of the Society, Sections shall be established.

Namesandnum- LX. Sections shall be established for the following
ber of sections. :
departments, viz.:—

Section A. Physical, Astronomical and Mechanical
Science, including Engineering.

Section B. Chemistry, Mineralogy ,and Metallurgy.

Section C. Natural Histery and Geology.

Section D. The Microscope and its applications.

Section E. Geography and Ethnology.

Section F. Social Science and Statistics.

Section G. Literature and the Fine Arts, including
Architecture.

Section H. Medical Science, including Physiology
_ and Pathology.

BAT ge! LXI. The meetings of the Sections shall be for
por scientific objects only.

Members of LXIJ. There shall be no membership of the Sec-
sections.

tions as distimguished from the membership of the
Society.

15

LXIII. There shall be for each Section a Chairman Officers of

: . ° sections,
to preside at the meetings and Secretary to keep minutes
of the proceedings, who shall jointly prepare and forward
to the Secretary of the Society, prior to the Ist of No-
vember in each year, a Report of the Proceedings of the
Section during that year, and such report shall be sub-
mitted to the Council.

LXIV. The Chairman and the Secretary of each Move ota:
Section shall be appointed at the first meeting of thie officers of sec-
Council after its election in March, in the first instance”
from Members of the Society who shall have signified
to the Secretary their willingness to undertake these
offices, and subsequently from such as are recommended

by the section as fit and willing.

LXV. The first meeting of each Section in the fime of meet
year shall be fixed by the Council, subsequently the ~
Section shall arrange its own days and hours of meet-
ing, provided these be at fixed intervals.

MASON AND FIRTH, PRINTERS, FLINDERS LANE WEST, MELBOURNE,

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